It took fifteen years from the end of the cold war. There were second thoughts in Washington, and many West European governments were reluctant to embark on the eastward expansion. The costs were likely to be huge. The risk of provoking Russia was obvious. In 2003 the divisions over the invasion of Iraq were deep and embarrassing.8 The East Europeans who were candidates for both NATO and EU membership had to choose. On one side stood Berlin and Paris in opposition to the war. On the other side were Washington, London and their supporters in Madrid and Rome. Eastern Europe opted overwhelmingly
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