The Elements of Style, Fourth Edition

by William Strunk Jr.

It is an old observation that the best writers sometimes disregard the rules of rhetoric. When they do so, however, the reader will usually find in the sentence some compensating merit, attained at the cost of the violation. Unless he is certain of doing as well, he will probably do best to follow the rules. After he has learned, by their guidance, to write plain English adequate for everyday uses, let him look, for the secrets of style, to the study of the masters of literature.

2. In a series of three or more terms with a single conjunction, use a comma after each term except the last. Thus write, red, white, and blue gold, silver, or copper He opened the letter, read it, and made a note of its contents.

Two-part sentences of which the second member is introduced by as (in the sense of because), for, or, nor, and while (in the sense of and at the same time) likewise require a comma before the conjunction. If the second member is introduced by an adverb, a semicolon, not a comma, is required (see Rule 5). The connectives so and yet may be used either as adverbs or as conjunctions, accordingly as the second clause is felt to be co-ordinate or subordinate; consequently either mark of punctuation may be justified. But these uses of so (equivalent to accordingly or to so that) are somewhat colloquial and should, as a rule, be avoided in writing. A simple correction, usually serviceable, is to omit the word so and begin the first clause with as or since:

Note that if the second clause is preceded by an adverb, such as accordingly, besides, then, therefore, or thus, and not by a conjunction, the semicolon is still required. Two exceptions to the rule may be admitted. If the clauses are very short, and are alike in form, a comma is usually permissible: Man proposes, God disposes. The gate swung apart, the bridge fell, the portcullis was drawn up.

Ending with a digression, or with an unimportant detail, is particularly to be avoided.

10. Use the active voice. The active voice is usually more direct and vigorous than the passive:

This rule does not, of course, mean that the writer should entirely discard the passive voice, which is frequently convenient and sometimes necessary.

11. Put statements in positive form. Make definite assertions. Avoid tame, colorless, hesitating, non-committal language. Use the word not as a

means of denial or in antithesis, never as a means of evasion.

12. Use definite, specific, concrete language.

the surest method of arousing and holding the attention of the reader is by being specific, definite, and concrete. Critics

13. Omit needless words.

This requires not that the writer make all his sentences short, or that he avoid all detail and treat his subjects only in outline, but that he make every word tell.

15. Express co-ordinate ideas in similar form.

16. Keep related words together.

17. In summaries, keep to one tense. In summarizing the action of a drama, the writer should always use the present tense.

18. Place the emphatic words of a sentence at the end.

Parentheses. A sentence containing an expression in parenthesis is punctuated, outside of the marks of parenthesis, exactly as if the expression in parenthesis were absent. The expression within is punctuated as if it stood by itself, except that the final stop is omitted unless it is a question mark or an exclamation point.

(When a wholly detached expression or sentence is parenthesized, the final stop comes before the last mark of parenthesis.)

Omit initial A or The from titles when you place the possessive before them.

All right. Idiomatic in familiar speech as a detached phrase in the sense, “Agreed,” or “Go ahead.” In other uses better avoided. Always written as two words.

Clever. This word has been greatly overused; it is best restricted to ingenuity displayed in small matters. Compare. To compare to is to point out or imply resemblances, between objects regarded as essentially of different order; to compare with is mainly to point out differences, between objects regarded as essentially of the same order. Thus life has been compared to a pilgrimage, to a drama, to a battle; Congress may be compared with the British Parliament. Paris has been compared to ancient Athens; it may be compared with modern London. Consider. Not followed by as when it means “believe to be.” “I consider him thoroughly competent.” Compare, “The lecturer considered Cromwell first as soldier and second as administrator,” where “considered” means “examined” or “discussed.”

Data. A plural, like phenomena and strata. These data were tabulated. Dependable. A needless substitute for reliable, trustworthy. Different than. Not permissible. Substitute different from, other than, or unlike. Divided into. Not to be misused for composed of. The line is sometimes difficult to draw; doubtless plays are divided into acts, but poems are composed of stanzas. Don't. Contraction of do not. The contraction of does not is doesn't.

Due to. Incorrectly used for through, because of, or owing to, in adverbial phrases: “He lost the first game, due to carelessness.” In correct use related as predicate or as modifier to a particular noun: “This invention is due to Edison;” “losses due to preventable fires.” Folk. A collective noun, equivalent to people. Use the singular form only. Effect. As noun, means result; as verb, means to bring about, accomplish (not to be confused with affect, which means “to influence”). As noun, often loosely used in perfunctory writing about fashions, music, painting, and other arts: “an Oriental effect;” “effects in pale green;” “very delicate effects;” “broad effects;” “subtle effects;” “a charming effect was produced by.” The writer who has a definite meaning to express will not take refuge in such vagueness. Etc. Equivalent to and the rest, and so forth, and hence not to be used if one of these would be insufficient, that is, if the reader would be left in doubt as to any important particulars. Least open to objection when it represents the last terms of a list already given in full, or immaterial words at the end of a quotation. At the end of a list introduced by such as, for exa...

Factor. A hackneyed word; the expressions of which it forms part can usually be replaced by something more direct and idiomatic. a) His superior training was the great factor in his winning the match. b) He won the match by being better trained. a) Heavy artillery has become an increasingly important factor in deciding battles. b) Heavy artillery has played a constantly larger part in deciding battles. Feature. Another hackneyed word; like factor it usually adds nothing to the sentence in which it occurs. a) A feature of the entertainment especially worthy of mention was the singing of Miss A. b) (Better use the same number of words to tell what Miss A. sang, or if the programme has already been given, to tell how she sang.) As a verb, in the advertising sense of offer as a special attraction, to be avoided. Fix. Colloquial in America for arrange, prepare, mend. In writing restrict it to its literary senses, fasten, make firm or immovable, etc.

Get. The colloquial have got for have should not be used in writing. The preferable form of the participle is got. He is a man who. A common type of redundant expression; see Rule 13. a) He is a man who is very ambitious. b) He is very ambitious. a) Spain is a country which I have always wanted to visit. b) I have always wanted to visit Spain. Help. See under But. However. In the meaning nevertheless, not to come first in its sentence or clause. a) The roads were almost impassable. However, we at last succeeded in reaching camp. b) The roads were almost impassable. At last, however, we succeeded in reaching camp.

When however comes first, it means in whatever way or to whatever extent.

Interesting. Avoid this word as a perfunctory means of introduction. Instead of announcing

that what you are about to tell is interesting, make it so.

Kind of. Not to be used as a substitute for rather (before adjectives and verbs), or except in familiar style, for something like (before nouns). Restrict it to its literal sense: “Amber is a kind of fossil resin;” “I dislike that kind of notoriety.” The same holds true of sort of. Less. Should not be misused for fewer. a) He had less men than in the previous campaign b) He had fewer men than in the previous campaign

Less refers to quantity, fewer to number. “His troubles are less than mine” means “His troubles are not so great as mine.” “His troubles are fewer than mine” means “His troubles are not so numerous as mine.” It is, however, correct to say, “The signers of the petition were less than a hundred,” where the round number a hundred is something like a collective noun, and less is thought of as meaning a less quantity or amount. Like. Not to be misused for as. Like governs nouns and pronouns; before phrases and clauses the equivalent word is as. a) We spent the evening like in the old days. b) We spent the evening as in the old days.

Literal, literally. Often incorrectly used in support of exaggeration or violent metaphor.

Lose out. Meant to be more emphatic than lose, but actually less so, because of its commonness. The same holds true of try out, win out, sign up, register up. With a number of verbs, out and up form idiomatic combinations: find out, run out, turn out, cheer up, dry up, make up, and others, each

Most. Not to be used for almost. a) Most everybody b) Almost everybody

Nature. Often simply redundant, used like character. a) Actas of a hostile nature b) Hostile acts

Near by. Adverbial phrase, not yet fully accepted as good English, though the analogy of close by and hard by seems to justify it. Near, or near at hand, is as good, if not better. Not to be used as an adjective; use neighboring. Oftentimes, ofttimes. Archaic forms, no longer in good use. The modern word is often. One hundred and one. Retain the and in this and similar expressions, in accordance with the unvarying usage of English prose from Old English times.

One of the most. Avoid beginning essays or paragraphs with this formula, as, “One of the most interesting developments of modern science is, etc.;” “Switzerland is one of the most interesting countries of Europe.” There is nothing wrong in this; it is simply threadbare and forcible-feeble. A common blunder is to use a singular verb in a relative clause following this or a similar expression, when the relative is the subject. a) One of the ablest men that has attacked this problem. b) One of the ablest men that have attacked this problem. Participle for verbal noun. a) Do you mind me asking a question? b) Do you mind my asking a question?

People. The people is a political term, not to be confused with the public. From the people comes political support or opposition; from the public comes artistic appreciation or commercial patronage. Phase. Means a stage of transition or development: “the phases of the moon;” “the last phase.” Not to be used for aspect or topic. Another phase of the subject Another point (another question) Possess. Not to be used as a mere substitute for have or own. a) He possessed great courage.

Prove. The past participle is proved. Respective, respectively. These words may usually be omitted with advantage.

Shall, Will. The future tense requires shall for the first person, will for the second and third. The formula to express the speaker's belief regarding his future action or state is I shall; I will expresses his determination or his consent. Should. See under Would. So. Avoid, in writing, the use of so as an intensifier: “so good;” “so warm;” “so delightful.” On the use of so to introduce clauses, see Rule 4. Sort of. See under Kind of.

Split Infinitive. There is precedent from the fourteenth century downward for interposing an adverb between to and the infinitive which it governs, but the construction is in disfavor and is avoided by nearly all careful writers. a) To diligently inquire b) To inquire diligently

State. Not to be used as a mere substitute for say, remark. Restrict it to the sense of express fully or clearly, as, “He refused to state his objections.” Student Body. A needless and awkward expression meaning no more than the simple word students.

System. Frequently used without need. a) Dayton has adopted the commission system of government. b) Dayton has adopted government by commission. a) The dormitory system b) Dormitories

Thanking You in Advance. This sounds as if the writer meant, “It will not be worth my while to write to you again.” In making your request, write, “Will you please,” or “I shall be obliged,” and if anything further seems necessary write a letter of acknowledgment later.

They. A common inaccuracy is the use of the plural pronoun when the antecedent is a distributive expression such as each, each one, everybody, every one, many a man, which, though implying more than one person, requires the pronoun to be in the singular. Similar to this, but with even less justification, is the use of the plural pronoun with the antecedent anybody, any one, somebody, some one, the intention being either to avoid the awkward “he or she,” or to avoid committing oneself to either. Some bashful speakers even say, “A friend of mine told me that they, etc.” Use he with all the above words, unless the antecedent is or must be feminine. Very. Use this word sparingly. Where emphasis is necessary, use words strong in themselves. Viewpoint. Write point of view, but do not misuse this, as many do, for view or opinion.

While. Avoid the indiscriminate use of this word for and, but, and although. Many writers use it frequently as a substitute for and or but, either from a mere desire to vary the connective, or from uncertainty which of the two connectives is the more appropriate. In this use it is best replaced by a semicolon. a) The office and salesrooms are on the ground floor, while the rest of the building is devoted to manufacturin...

In general, the writer will do well to use while only with strict literalness, in the sense of during the time that. Whom. Often incorrectly used for who before he said or similar expressions, when it is really the subject of a following verb. a) His brother, whom he said would send him the money

His brother, who he said would send him the money a) The man whom he thought was his friend b) The man who (that) he thought was his friend (whom he thought his friend)

Would. A conditional statement in the first person requires should, not would. I should not have succeeded without his help. The equivalent of shall in indirect quotation after a verb in the past tense is should, not would. He predicted that before long we should have a great surprise. To express habitual or repeated action, the past tense, without would, is usually sufficient, and from its brevity, more emphatic.

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