Better still is the next grade, the Popperian creatures, who extract information about the cruel world and keep it handy, so they can use it to pretest hypothetical behaviors offline, letting “their hypotheses die in their stead” as the philosopher of science Karl Popper once put it. Eventually they must act in the real world, but their first choice is not random, having won the generate-and-test competition trial runs in the internal environment model. Finally, there are the Gregorian creatures, named in honor of Richard Gregory, the psychologist who emphasized the role of thinking tools in
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