Communist Party congresses starting in 1922 identified the United States as one of the main enemies of China’s revolution. It was a formidable opponent, the party noted, because so many Chinese were passionately pro-American. The party spilled vast quantities of ink trying to convince Chinese not to be hoodwinked by America’s promises. In a 1929 policy paper, the Communists charged that American missionary, health, and education activities were “only a disguise of liberalism.” Anyone who doubted that, said Chen Duxiu, “is a traitor.”
