Advertising is costly. In other words, if we could somehow ignore the effects of quality and attractiveness, a male would be better off not advertising (thereby saving energy or being less conspicuous to predators). Not only is advertising costly; it is because of its costliness that a given advertising system is chosen. An advertising system is chosen precisely because it actually has the effect of reducing the success of the advertiser—all other things being held equal. 4. Advertising is more costly to worse males. The same level of advertising increases the risk for a puny male more than
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