As a practicing Muslim, I simply had no idea of the contradictory forms of tawhid, nor of how volatile intra-Muslim relations had been on account of them. I, and most Muslims I knew, simply thought that Islam’s doctrine of God was clearly defined, unanimously agreed upon, and entirely unproblematic. In other words, we uncritically believed that tawhid was an impervious doctrine. But the Mihna illustrates that Muslims have significant disagreements over tawhid, and there are multiple views in Islam. We have already explored the two views of tawhid in the Mihna that were contrary enough to cause
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