General System Theory: Foundations, Development, Applications

by Ludwig Von Bertalanffy

For example, Poe Yu-Ze Wan developed a new strand of post-Luhmannian social theory that he named “emergentist systemism,” after the terms introduced by the critical realist systems philosopher, Mario Bunge (Wan, 2011).

Evolutionary systems theory is an important development based on GST and critical realism, and provides a general systemic theory concerning the evolution of every kind of system, explaining otherwise baffling aspects of the birth, growth, and decline of all systems, from the simplest particles to social systems and even the cosmos itself (Ebeling & Feistel, 1994; Goerner, 1994; Layzer, 1990; Mainzer, 1994; Smolin, 1997; Hofkirchner, 2013).

Thinking about problems from this meta-level point of view is the essence of systems thinking.

The crises we face are systemic in nature. To overcome those crises we need to understand how systems work. To arrive at such an understanding we need to think systemically.

Trends in General Systems Theory (G. Klir, ed.)

Dynamical System Theory is developed in the book of this title by Robert Rosen.

An excellent presentation of dynamical system theory and theory of open systems, following the line of the present writer, is given in W. Beier’s Biophysik

System philosophy is developed in Laszlo’s Introduction to Systems Philosophy.

Wiener’s Cybernetics (1948), Shannon and Weaver’s information theory (1949) and von Neumann and Morgenstern’s game theory (1947).

Compartment theory. An aspect of systems which may be listed separately because of the high sophistication reached in the field is compartment theory (Rescigno and Segre, 1966), i.e., the system consists of subunits with certain boundary conditions between which transport processes take place.

Set theory.

Graph theory, especially the theory of directed graphs (digraphs), elaborates relational structures by representing them in a topological space.

Net theory, in its turn, is connected with set, graph, compartment, etc., theories and is applied to such systems as nervous networks

Cybernetics is a theory of control systems based on communication (transfer of information) between system and environment and within the system, and control (feedback) of the system’s function in regard to environment.

Information theory,

information may be used as measure of organization

Theory of automata

Game theory (von Neumann and Morgenstern, 1947) is a different approach but may be ranged among systems sciences because it is concerned with the behavior of supposedly “rational” players to obtain maximal gains and minimal losses by appropriate strategies against the other player (or nature).

Decision theory

Queuing theory concerns optimization of arrangements under conditions of crowding.

Again, according to Hart (1959), human invention can be conceived as new combinations of previously existing elements. If so, the opportunity for new inventions will increase roughly as a function of the number of possible permutations and combinations of available elements, which means that its increase will be a factorial of the number of elements.

In this way we postulate a new discipline called General System Theory. Its subject matter is the formulation and derivation of those principles which are valid for “systems” in general.

A consequence of the existence of general system properties is the appearance of structural similarities or isomorphisms in different fields.

While in the past, science tried to explain observable phenomena by reducing them to an interplay of elementary units investigatable independently of each other, conceptions appear in contemporary science that are concerned with what is somewhat vaguely termed “wholeness,” i.e., problems of organization, phenomena not resolvable into local events, dynamic interactions manifest in the difference of behavior of parts when isolated or in a higher configuration, etc.; in short, “systems” of various orders not understandable by investigation of their respective parts in isolation.

These considerations lead to the postulate of a new scientific discipline which we call general system theory. Its subject matter is formulation of principles that are valid for “systems” in general, whatever the nature of their component elements and the relations or “forces” between them.

This indicates major aims of general system theory: (1) There is a general tendency towards integration in the various sciences, natural and social. (2) Such integration seems to be centered in a general theory of systems. (3) Such theory may be an important means for aiming at exact theory in the nonphysical fields of science. (4) Developing unifying principles running “vertically” through the universe of the individual sciences, this theory brings us nearer to the goal of the unity of science. (5) This can lead to a much-needed integration in scientific education.

Every living organism is essentially an open system. It maintains itself in a continuous inflow and outflow, a building up and breaking down of components, never being, so long as it is alive, in a state of chemical and thermodynamic equilibrium but maintained in a so-called steady state which is distinct from the latter.

Then there is a law of optimum size of organizations: the larger an organization grows, the longer is the way of communication and this, depending on the nature of the organization, acts as a limiting factor and does not allow an organization to grow beyond a certain critical size.

system can be defined as a set of elements standing in interrelations.

Competition eventually leads to the extermination of the species with the smaller growth capacity; a predator-prey relation only leads to periodic oscillation of the numbers of the species concerned around a mean value.

There is, however, yet another basis for organic regulations. This is equifinality—i.e., the fact that the same final state can be reached from different initial conditions and in different ways.