operating procedures, and routine data entry and retrieval. I estimated that such work then constituted about one-quarter of all jobs in the United States but would decline steadily as it was replaced by new labor-saving technologies and by workers in developing nations eager to do it for far lower wages. I also assumed that the pay of remaining routine production workers in America would drop, for similar reasons. I was not wrong. Using the same methodology I used then, I found that by 2014 routine
