When Augustus had become the sole ruler of the empire, he had called for a return to traditional Roman values, especially pietas, duty to family and country. He presented himself to the citizens of Rome as their father and patron, manifesting his paternal devotion in massive public benefactions. In return, he expected his subjects’ loyalty (pistis). In the provinces too, the local elite depicted their emperor as the benevolent bringer of peace and security whose rule was blessed by the gods, so the conquered peoples were expected to love their subjugation. But Paul would soon have become aware
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