We have already mentioned Aristotle’s view of objects possessing tendencies to move toward the earth, away from the earth or around the earth, all of which he considered to be natural motions. He also recognized that solid objects could be pushed, pulled and thrown, all motions that he called “violent” and considered to be initiated by some kind of force provided by another object, such as the throwing person. But what produced the throwing motion—or the flight of a bird? There appeared to be no external cause. Aristotle claimed that living creatures, unlike inanimate objects, were capable of
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