going back to at least the 12th century, European culture had developed a rich and ghastly tableau of imaginary Jews.… Kant’s division of humanity reiterated and reinvigorated the religious and racial hierarchies of the past.… He took this earlier religious hostility toward Jews and reformulated it in philosophical language.… Kant set the stage for modern secular anti-Semitism … [and] provided the framework for future anti-Semites, notably G. W. F. Hegel and the musician Richard Wagner. Since Wagner was a cultural hero for Adolf Hitler, Kant’s own anti-Semitism can be seen as having a
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