US offensive operations advanced further in 2003 when the Pentagon prepared a secret “Information Operations Roadmap” aimed at turning information warfare into a core military competency on par with air, ground, maritime, and special operations.23 The classified report, released with redactions a few years later, noted that a comprehensive process was already under way to evaluate the capabilities of cyberweapons and spy tools and develop a policy for their use. The latter included trying to determine what level of data or systems manipulation constituted an attack or use of force and what
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