Even the earliest Muslims understood that literal meanings could, in fact, be dangerous. In a series of verses chastising the Jews and Christians of Medina for not following the sacred laws revealed to them or submitting to the Prophet’s judgment, the Qur’an declares: ‘And whoever does not rule by what God has revealed, truly they are the unbelievers’ (5:44). This verse has echoed violently among militant revivalist groups in the modern period. It literally condemns as kafirs – unbelievers – those who do not rule by the law revealed by God, the Shariah.
