A long-standing point of debate among Empedocles scholars is what, if anything, his story of cosmic cycles and organic generation might have to do with his theory of reincarnation.5 The former looks like Anaxagorean natural philosophy, the latter like Pythagorean religion. As we’ve seen, Empedocles claimed to be a god banished to this world. He believes that he and other gods have become lesser beings, called “spirits” or “demons” (daimones). These spirits then come to be trapped in fleshly bodies (§§402–7). Ultimately they can rise back to divine status, by becoming outstanding humans (like
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