Cowen notes that even if we move away from energy-dense fossil fuels, the building of solar panels, wind turbines, and hydroelectric plants and the production of electric vehicles and storage batteries, which use massive amounts of rare-earth elements and critical metals, can offset any carbon emissions savings. Short of developing radically novel energy sources (such as nuclear fusion) or other novel technological breakthroughs, large-scale decarbonization and the physical trade-offs it involves will require massive investment and innovation just to maintain the status quo or achieve
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