Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind

by Yuval Noah Harari

Legends, myths, gods and religions appeared for the first time with the Cognitive Revolution.

Ever since the Cognitive Revolution, Sapiens have thus been living in a dual reality. On the one hand, the objective reality of rivers, trees and lions; and on the other hand, the imagined reality of gods, nations and corporations. As time went by, the imagined reality became ever more powerful, so that today the very survival of rivers, trees and lions depends on the grace of imagined entities such as the United States and Google.

But the single most remarkable and defining moment of the past 500 years came at 05:29:45 on 16 July 1945. At that precise second, American scientists detonated the first atomic bomb at Alamogordo, New Mexico. From that point onward, humankind had the capability not only to change the course of history, but to end it.

A good example is the family of King Edward I of England (1237–1307) and his wife, Queen Eleanor (1241–90). Their children enjoyed the best conditions and the most nurturing surroundings that could be provided in medieval Europe. They lived in palaces, ate as much food as they liked, had plenty of warm clothing, well-stocked fireplaces, the cleanest water available, an army of servants and the best doctors. The sources mention sixteen children that Queen Eleanor bore between 1255 and 1284: 1. An anonymous daughter, born in 1255, died at birth. 2. A daughter, Catherine, died either at age one or age three. 3. A daughter, Joan, died at six months. 4. A son, John, died at age five. 5. A son, Henry, died at age six. 6. A daughter, Eleanor, died at age twenty-nine. 7. An anonymous daughter died at five months. 8. A daughter, Joan, died at age thirty-five. 9. A son, Alphonso, died at age ten. 10. A daughter, Margaret, died at age fifty-eight. 11. A daughter, Berengeria, died at age two. 12. An anonymous daughter died shortly after birth. 13. A daughter, Mary, died at age fifty-three. 14. An anonymous son died shortly after birth. 15. A daughter, Elizabeth, died at age thirty-four. 16. A son, Edward.

To the best of our knowledge, Eleanor and Edward I were a healthy couple and passed no fatal hereditary illnesses on to their children. Nevertheless, ten out of the sixteen – 62 per cent – died during childhood.

In previous eras the standard of beauty was set by the handful of people who lived next door to you. Today the media and the fashion industry expose us to a totally unrealistic standard of beauty. They search out the most gorgeous people on the planet, and then parade them constantly before our eyes. No wonder we are far less happy with the way we look.