The system had become formalized by the time of Caligula, who kept two notebooks of enemies’ names, titled “Sword” and “Dagger.” The first listed those whom the soldiers would behead; those on the second would open their own veins (an operation requiring a much shorter blade). The state had a vital interest in keeping these categories distinct. In at least one case, a man attempting suicide and on the point of succeeding was rushed as he expired to a place of execution. He managed to die en route, cheating the princeps of an estate. Even as their lifeblood ebbed away, political suicides knew
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