CHAPTER XI The Twelfth Century FOUR aspects of the twelfth century are specially interesting to us: (1) The continued conflict of empire and papacy; (2) The rise of the Lombard cities; (3) The Crusades; and (4) The growth of scholasticism. All these four continued into the following century. The Crusades gradually came to an inglorious end; but, as regards the other three movements, the thirteenth century marks the culmination of what, in the twelfth, is in a transitional stage.
