Leaders in Hanoi appear to have drawn two principal lessons from the developments. First, the American air strikes were dramatic proof of their vulnerability to U.S. military power. In internal directives Hanoi officials cautioned that “our initial experiences in fighting were inadequate,” and they redeployed their defense units and tightened discipline. Second, northern leaders, who knew that there occurred no DRV attacks on U.S. ships on 4 August, viewed the “retaliatory” bombings and the congressional resolution as demonstrations of Johnson’s determination to maintain the American presence
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