Thus, 1914 closed with the eastern front in a condition as static as that of the west. The line rested for much of its length on natural obstacles—on the Carpathians, on the Dunajec, on the Vistula. But the trenches themselves lacked great sophistication. The hard weather made excavation difficult. The length of the front, double that of the western front, meant that it lacked the density of troops characteristic of France and Belgium. Firepower encouraged dispersion and breadth, and so in operational terms troops lacked the concentration and mass needed to effect a decision.
