The idea that the Nationalist government was “dependent” on Europe or America was a reference to the way that Chiang’s government had tried to counter the threat from Japan before 1937 by seeking support from the Western powers, although those powers remained reluctant to offer much substantial help. It was also, more broadly, a recognition that China had started to participate in a world where transnational organizations such as the League of Nations were trying to overcome the frictions caused by bilateral conflicts between countries.10 Japan regarded China as its backyard, and these
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