The government knew that its treatment of refugees was being judged in comparison with the Communists and with the Japanese. For many in the middle class, particularly those of a progressive frame of mind, the clear alternative was the Communists. The refugees from poorer rural backgrounds were more inclined to consider living under Japanese occupation. To do so would mean at least enjoying the familiarity of home, and in some cases the Japanese may have seemed no worse—or even better—than the many militarists who had rampaged through China in previous decades. The Nationalist government was
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