the woman represents Israel, building on the Old Testament imagery of Israel as the wife of God (Isaiah 54:5-6; Jeremiah 3:6-8; 31:32; Ezekiel 16:32; Hosea 2:16). Consequently, the 12 stars represent the 12 tribes of Israel, and the moon may allude to God’s covenant relationship with Israel because new moons are associated with covenant worship (1 Chronicles 23:31; 2 Chronicles 2:4; 8:13).
