Kindle Notes & Highlights
“People of the Book,” a community of believers who received revelations, through prophets, in the form of scriptures or revealed books from God.
They emphasized social justice (concern for the rights of women, widows, and orphans), corrected distortions to God’s revelations in Judaism and Christianity, and warned that many had strayed from the message of God and the prophets. They called upon all to return to what the Quran refers to as the straight path of Islam or the path of God, revealed one final time to Muhammad, the last or “seal” of the prophets.
Quran (sometimes written Koran) means “recitation” in Arabic. The Quran is the Muslim scripture. Muslims believe it contains the revelations received by the Prophet Muhammad from God through the angel Gabriel. Muhammad, who was illiterate, functioned as God’s intermediary; he was told to “recite” the revelation he received. For
This format has proved frustrating to many non-Muslims, who find the text disjointed or disorganized from their point of view. However, it enables a believer to simply open the text at random and start reciting at the beginning of any paragraph, since each represents a lesson to be learned and reflected upon.
musical and poetic recitations of Quranic verses serve as an introduction to every community event, from weddings and funerals to lectures and business dinners. Quran
contrast to the frequently spiritualized Christian view of Jesus, Muslims look upon Muhammad as both a prophet and a very human figure, one with great political as well as spiritual insights.
Muslims’ observations or remembrances of what the Prophet said and did were passed on orally and in writing through “traditions” (hadith). The hadith deal with all aspects of Muhammad’s life: the intensely personal and public, social, and political. Thus,
Messengers, on the other hand, bring a universal message to all peoples. The title Messenger is limited to the prophets Moses, Jesus, and Muhammad, whose revelations were preserved in scriptural form.
Thus he is sometimes referred to as the “living Quran.” Muhammad was and is the model of the Muslim
Narrative stories about the Prophet’s example (Sunnah), known as the hadith (traditions) of the Prophet, record many aspects of Muhammad’s life, including religious belief and ritual, eating, dress, personal hygiene, marriage, treatment of spouses, diplomacy, and warfare. These detailed records of Muhammad’s actions in war and peace, his interactions with family, friends, and foes, his judgments in good and bad times, and his decisions when under siege and when victorious recall and reinforce for Muslims what it takes to follow the word of God. Excluded from imitation is anything Muhammad did
The five core beliefs—the oneness of God (tawhid), prophets, scriptures, angels, and Day of Judgment—are complemented by five required observances, which the Quran prescribes that all practicing Muslims accept and follow. These
The first part of this proclamation affirms Islam’s absolute monotheism, the uncompromising belief in the oneness or unity of God, as well as the doctrine that association of anything else with God is idolatry and the one unforgivable sin.
The second part of the confession of faith asserts that Muhammad is not only a prophet but also a messenger of God, a higher role also played by Moses and Jesus before him.
The second Pillar of Islam is prayer (salat). Muslims pray (or, perhaps more correctly, worship) five times throughout the day: at daybreak, noon, midafternoon, sunset, and evening. Although the times for prayer and the ritual actions were not specified
The third Pillar of Islam is called the zakat, which means “purification.” Like prayer,
It requires an annual contribution of 2.5 percent of an individual’s wealth and assets, not merely a percentage of annual income.
The Quran (9:60) as well as Islamic law stipulates that alms are to be used to support the poor, orphans, and widows, to free slaves and debtors, and to support those working in the “cause of God” (e.g., construction of mosques, religious schools, and hospitals, etc.).
believers pay a religious tax (khums) on their income to a religious leader. This is used to support the poor and needy.
Ramadan fast is intended to stimulate reflection on human frailty and dependence upon God, focus on spiritual goals and values, and identification with and response to the less fortunate.
The fifth Pillar is the pilgrimage, or hajj, to Mecca in Saudi Arabia.
Muslims can privately petition (dua) God regarding their individual needs. There are recommended prayer texts in Arabic for such individual needs and problems, but in these prayers the worshipper can also address God in his or her own native language and own words.
Second Coming of Jesus. Muslims are divided over the coming of a Mahdi. Some believe that the Mahdi will appear to bring justice and truth to all before the Day of Resurrection. Other Muslims believe that Jesus’ second coming will fulfill that role, citing those Quranic commentators who believe verse 43:61 refers to the resurrection of Jesus: “And he/it (Jesus) shall be a Sign (for the coming of) the Hour (of Judgment): therefore have no doubt about the (Hour), but follow ye Me: this is a Straight Way” (43:61). They
Mary, the mother of Jesus, is a prominent figure in Islam and the only woman mentioned by name in the Quran.
congregational prayer (juma) in a mosque takes place at noon on Friday. Many Muslims in America arrange to use their lunch hour or request a flexible work schedule (coming to work earlier or staying later) in order to attend their hour-long Friday services. (See
An imam (leader) stands in front of the congregation to lead Friday prayers. A special feature of the Friday prayer is a sermon (khutba), often delivered from a wooden pulpit (minbar) modeled on the platform used by Muhammad when he gave sermons to his community. The preacher begins by reciting a verse from the Quran and then gives a short talk addressing the affairs and problems of the community, often combining
imam (leader) stands in front of the congregation to lead Friday prayers.
special feature of the Friday prayer is a sermon (khutba), often delivered from a wooden pulpit (minbar) modeled on the platform used by Muhammad when he gave sermons to his community. The preacher begins by reciting a verse from the Quran and then gives a short talk addressing the affairs and problems of the community, often combining rel...
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Muslims celebrate two great Islamic holidays. The first is Eid al-Fitr, the Feast of the Breaking of the Fast of Ramadan, a celebration that extends for three days. The second holiday is the greater of the two. It occurs two and a half months after the first and lasts for four days. This is the Eid al-Adha, the Feast of Sacrifice, which marks the annual completion of the pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj). These holidays represent a religious obligation for Muslims as well as a social celebration.
Islam does not have an ordained clergy or representatives of a church hierarchy in the way that Christianity does. Any Muslim can lead the prayer or officiate at a wedding or burial. In fact, however, historically certain functions came to be filled by a class that took on distinctive forms of dress and authority that are clergy-like. A variety of roles have come to be played by religious scholars and leaders.
Larger communities have a full-time imam, the chief official who performs the many functions that a priest or rabbi might perform: leading a ritual prayer, administering the mosque or Islamic center or school as well as community activities, visiting the sick, and
Scholars of the Quran, Islamic law, and theology (who are called ulama, meaning “the learned”) came to represent a permanent class of religious scholars often distinguished in society by their form of dress. They claimed a primary role as the protectors and authoritative interpreters of Islam. Many titles exist for Islamic religious scholars, reflecting their functions in interpreting Islam, some in theology, others in law. Among the ulama, mujtahid is a special title for one who is qualified to interpret Islamic law (using ijtihad, or independent reasoning). A mufti is a specialist in Islamic
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An important feature of the prayer area is the mihrab, an ornamental arched niche set into the wall, which indicates the direction of Mecca (which Muslims always face when praying). Next to the mihrab is the minbar, a raised wooden platform (similar to a pulpit) modeled after the one that the Prophet Muhammad ascended to give his sermons to the community. The prayer leader delivers his sermon from the steps of the minbar. Because of the need for cleansing prior to prayer, most mosques have a spot set aside for performing ablutions away from the main prayer area.
They are used as centers for the collection and distribution of zakat (charitable contributions). Many pilgrims visit their local mosques when they depart for and return from the hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca) and umrah (minor pilgrimage). The dead are placed before the mihrab for funerary prayers. Mosques
The term madrasa means “a place where learning or studying occurs.” Historically, madrasas were institutions of higher learning, similar to the universities that began as institutions of the Church in the Western world. While in some countries madrasa refers to both religious and secular schools, today the term is most often used to describe Islamic schools, including major Islamic universities and seminaries as well as primary and secondary Islamic schools such as Indonesia’s
the core curriculum of madrasas included the study of Arabic language and syntax, the Quran, Quranic interpretation (tafsir), hadith (tradition), and Muslim history.
Sunni Muslims believe that because Muhammad did not designate a successor, the best or most qualified person should be either selected or elected as leader (caliph). Because the Quran declared Muhammad to be the last of the prophets, this caliph was to succeed Muhammad as the political leader only. Sunni believe that the caliph should serve as the protector of the faith, but he does not enjoy any special religious status or inspiration.
Shii, by contrast, believe that succession to the leadership of the Muslim community should be hereditary, passed down to Muhammad’s male descendants (descended from Muhammad’s daughter Fatima and her husband Ali), who are known as Imams.
Shii historical memory emphasizes the suffering and oppression of the righteous, the need to protest against injustice, and the requirement that Muslims be willing to sacrifice everything, including their lives, in the struggle with the overwhelming forces of evil (Satan) in order to restore God’s righteous rule.
Most Sunni theologians and jurists taught that the preservation of social order was more important than the character of the ruler. They also taught that only God on Judgment Day is capable of judging sinners and determining whether or not they are faithful and deserving of paradise. Therefore, Sunni concluded that the ruler should remain in power since subjects could not judge the ruler. Ibn Taymiyya was the one major theologian and jurist
Today, Sunni constitute approximately 85 percent of Muslims and Shii make up 15 percent.
Sunni, or followers of the Sunnah (example) of the Prophet, believed that Muhammad had died without establishing a system for selecting a successor or designating a replacement. After an initial period of uncertainty, the elders or leaders of Medina selected Abu Bakr to be the caliph (successor, deputy). An early convert who had been Muhammad’s close companion and trusted adviser as well as his father-in-law, Abu Bakr was respected for his sagacity and piety. Thus Sunni Muslims adopted the belief that leadership should pass to the most qualified person, not through hereditary succession.
minority of the Muslim community, the Shii, or Party of Ali, opposed the selection of Abu Bakr as caliph, believing that succession should be hereditary. Since Muhammad had no sons who survived infancy, this minority believed that succession should pass through Muhammad’s daughter Fatima and that her husband Ali, Muhammad’s first cousin and closest living male relative, should be the leader (called Imam) of the Islamic community. Shii took strong exception to the fact that Ali was passed over for the position of caliph three times, finally gaining his rightful place after thirty-five years
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Muslims point out that the differences between Sunni and Shii do not have to do with dogma but rather are political, having to do with the qualifications for the head of the Muslim community. Their shared beliefs and practices notwithstanding, however, they also developed different views about the meaning of history.
Malcolm explained his realization that “we were truly all the same (brothers)—because their belief in one God removed the ‘white’ from their minds, the ‘white’ from their behavior and the ‘white’ from their attitude.” He also recognized that he did not know how to perform Islam’s daily prayers and had not observed the other prescribed practices in the Five Pillars of Islam. Malcolm returned from the pilgrimage as El Hajj Malik El-Shabazz, a Muslim, rather than a Black Muslim. He changed his position on black nationalism, moving to pan-Africanism, which aligns African Americans with their
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the Constitution of Medina (c. 622–624), which regulated social and political life. The constitution states that the believers comprise a single community, or ummah, which is responsible for collectively enforcing social order and security and for confronting enemies in times of war and peace. Tribes remained responsible for the conduct of their individual members, and a clear precedent was set for the inclusion of other religions as part of the broader community led by Muslims. The Jewish population was granted the right to internal religious and cultural autonomy, including the right to
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inherent message of peaceful coexistence, the permissibility of religious pluralism in areas under Muslim rule, and the right of non-Muslims to be members of and participants in the broader Muslim community.
Byzantium, they were welcomed by some Christian sects and groups, who were persecuted as heretics by “official” Christianity, that is, Catholicism. Many Christians welcomed a Muslim rule that gave them more freedom to practice their faith and imposed lighter taxes. Despite initial fears, the Muslim conquerors proved to be far more tolerant than imperial Christianity, granting religious freedom to indigenous Christian churches and Jews.
empires to incorporate the most advanced elements from surrounding civilizations, including Byzantine and Persian Sasanid imperial and administrative practices and Hellenic science, architecture, art, medicine, and philosophy.
Muslim rule in Spain (al-Andalus) from 756 to about 1000, which is usually idealized as a period of interfaith harmony, or convivencia (living together). Muslim rule of Spain offered the Christian and Jewish populations seeking refuge from the class system of Europe the opportunity to become prosperous small landholders. Christians and Jews occupied prominent positions in the court of the caliph in the tenth century, serving as translators, engineers, physicians, and architects. The
The fifth Sunni caliph, Muawiyyah (ruled 661–669), regularly sent invitations to the contending Jacobite and Maronite Christians to come to the royal court to discuss their differences.
