Determined: A Science of Life without Free Will

by Robert M. Sapolsky

Hunter-gatherers, whose lifestyle has dominated 99 percent of human history, do not invent moralizing gods. Sure, their gods might demand a top-of-the-line sacrifice now and then, but they have no interest in whether humans are nice to each other. Everything about the evolution of cooperation and prosociality is facilitated by stable, transparent relationships built on familiarity and the potential for reciprocity; these are precisely the conditions that would make for moral constraint in small hunter-gatherer bands, obviating the need for some god eavesdropping. It was not until humans started living in larger communities that religions with moralizing gods started to pop up. As humans transitioned to villages, cities, and then protostates, for the first time, human sociality included frequent transient and anonymous encounters with strangers. Which generated the need to invent all-seeing eyes in the sky, the moralizing gods who dominate the world religions.[12] Thus, if belief in a moralizing god(s) is what keeps us in line, it’s obvious where lack of belief should take you. This generates the inevitable exchange that every atheist has to endure at some point: Theist: How can we trust you atheists to be moral if you don’t think that God holds you responsible for your actions? Atheist: Well, what does that say about you religious