And here is a good trick: instead of a real-world outcome, like death or pain, you could always use a ‘surrogate outcome’, which is easier to attain. If your drug is supposed to reduce cholesterol and so prevent cardiac deaths, for example, don’t measure cardiac deaths, measure reduced cholesterol instead. That’s much easier to achieve than a reduction in cardiac deaths, and the trial will be cheaper and quicker to do, so your result will be cheaper and more positive. Result!
