Chris Pearce's Blog, page 19

The game of lawn darts

(originally published to Helium writing site, now gone)

Lawn darts became a popular backyard game in the late 1950s. Also called yard darts, garden darts, or jarts, the game is usually played with four darts and two players or teams. The darts are much larger than those used indoors at home or at pubs and are similar to the pumbatae or lead-weighted darts used by soldiers in ancient times and the Middle Ages. They are 12 inches long with a weighted tip at one end and three fins attached to a rod at the other end.

Darts are held by the rod and thrown underarm at a plastic ring laid on the ground. According to the rules, a player stands 50 feet from the ring and throws his or her darts. In practice, the distance will vary depending on the competence of participants and the size of the venue. The object is to land the darts anywhere in the ring and score a point or points for each dart. A dart must stick in the ground to score.

There are several variations of lawn darts, including traditional, handly cup style, and nuclear lawn darts where old maps are the targets rather than rings. Each variation can be played by two people or teams. In the team game, a member from each side stands at each end of the playing area but well clear of the ring.

In the traditional lawn darts version, a player scores one point if the dart lands within the ring. If the opposing player or team also lands a dart within the target area, the points will cancel each other out. Thus if the first team or person gets two darts into the ring and the second team or person gets one, then the score for that round is given as 1-0, or one point to the leading team or person and zero points to the other.

Variations to this scoring system can and do occur, such as the first team or person to get 10 darts into the ring or score 10 points. Sometimes a smaller ring might be placed inside the larger ring and additional points scored for hitting the bulls-eye. This might be useful where the playing area is small and getting the darts in the main ring becomes too easy.

In the handly cup style version, darts that land closer to the ring than the opponent’s darts earn points as well as darts that go in the ring. Darts that find the target are known as “ringers” and score three points each. However, this score can be cancelled out if the other person or team also gets a dart inside the ring, the same as in traditional lawn darts. In handly cup, any dart that lands closer to the ring than the nearest dart of the opposing person or team scores one point.

Thus if one side has two darts closer to the ring than any of the other side’s darts, they get two points. If one team or person has a dart in the ring and a dart that is outside the ring but closer to it than the other team or person, they would earn four points, consisting of three for the ringer and one for the dart closer to the ring. No additional points are awarded for darts closer to the ring if both persons or teams get one or more darts in the ring. This is because any dart outside the ring is farther away than the other person’s or team’s dart or darts inside the ring. It means that if each side gets a ringer and one side lands any number of darts closer to the ring than the other side, no one scores in that round as the two ringers cancel each other and the darts outside the ring don’t count.

Successive rounds are played until one team or person reaches a total of 21 points. At that stage, the leading team or person is declared the winner of the match.

Lawn darts were banned from sale in the US and Canada in the late 1980s as the darts caused the deaths of three children. The game hasn’t been banned in other countries, such as the UK. Nevertheless, great care should be taken, including some commonsense safety rules such as not allowing young children to participate or anyone to stand within a certain distance of the ring. Families might prefer to play similar games, such as kubb which uses wooden batons or cornhole which uses bean bags.

History of the game horseshoes

(originally published to Helium writing site, now gone)

Horseshoes is a game played outdoors by two people or teams throwing four horseshoes at two stakes in the ground 40 feet apart. Like many modern games, its origins can be traced back thousands of years.

One of the sports in the ancient Olympic Games was discus throwing, a sport that dates to at least 708 BCE. Later, when players couldn’t afford or find a discus to practise with, they used horseshoes. These devices had been attached to horses’ hoofs since the second century BCE. It is thought that soldiers in both the Greek and Roman armies drove a stake in the ground and threw discarded horseshoes at it in their spare time.

Closely related to the game of horseshoes is quoits. Which game was first is unknown. Quoits was played with a metal disk that had a hole in the middle and may have been primarily used as a weapon. Some historians believe that Roman officers threw quoits at a stake, while their subordinates improvised by using old horseshoes. Other researchers think that soldiers of various ranks pitched horseshoes and someone came up with the idea of making them into a ring.

In any case, both games were probably played on and off over the centuries and horseshoes and quoits used interchangeably depending on what were available. We know that quoits was played in 14th century England before being banned by authorities in 1388 as it distracted soldiers from archery practice. English peasants were playing both games in the 16th century and later took them to North America. In the American Revolutionary War (1775-1783), US soldiers played horseshoes to such an extent that England’s Duke of Wellington later wrote that “the war was won by pitchers of horse hardware.” During the American Civil War (1861-1865), Union soldiers threw mule shoes.

The first attempt to standardize the rules took place in England in 1869. The stakes were set 57 feet apart and the maximum diameter of the quoit was eight inches. For non-ringers, measurements for points were based on the part of the quoit nearest the stake. These rules were also used in the US. There were no formal competitions or records, although soldiers returning from wars were keen horseshoe players and got their communities interested. Horseshoe pitching courts were constructed in cities, towns and farming areas across the US and Canada. It became a popular game for the whole family, although differences in rules arose locally. A horseshoe club may have been formed in Pennsylvania in 1899.

The first horseshoe pitching world championship was held in Bronson, Kansas in 1910. The stakes were just two inches tall and set 38 feet apart. Ringers scored five points, leaners three, and close shots one. A total of 21 points were needed to win a game. Frank Johnson won the tournament from 34 contestants. He was able to throw a ringer and then land his second horseshoe on top time and again, preventing his opponent scoring a ringer. He went on to win seven world championships. Stakes were increased to six inches in 1911. But there were still no rules for horseshoe weight, size or shape. A competitor in a 1911 tournament used a shoe with one side four inches longer than the other.

The game’s first governing body in the US was the Grand League of the American Horseshoe Pitchers Association set up in Kansas City in 1914. Some standard rules were laid down. Stakes became eight inches tall, and shoes were to weigh between two pounds and two pounds two ounces. Scoring stayed the same as did the distance between stakes. Another ruling body, the National League of Horseshoe and Quoit Pitchers was formed in Florida in 1919. The two organizations merged to create the National Horseshoe Pitchers Association of America (NHPA) in 1925.

Meanwhile, further rule changes were made. In 1919, the distance between stakes was altered to 40 feet, the same as that used today, and a forward lean of one inch. Fifty points won a game. In 1920, stake height was raised to 10 inches and ringers to count as three points. The first world championship for women was held in that year. The forward lean of the stakes was increased to three inches in 1923. During this decade the sport grew in popularity, with the sports pages carrying regular stories. World championships were held every summer and winter. Ohio sportswriter Doc Kerr called it barnyard golf as it was so popular in rural areas. The name stuck for over a decade.

Around 1940 the stake was increased to 12 inches, and then to 14-15 inches in 1950. The last major rule change was in 1982 requiring a player to score 40 points to win a game rather than 50 points. A ringer is still worth three points while a leaner or a shoe within six inches of the stake is worth one point. Stakes remain 40 feet apart in men’s competitions and 30 feet for women’s events. Shoes can weigh up to two pounds 10 ounces.

Today the game is most popular in the US and Canada where an estimated 15 million people play tournaments, leagues, socially, and in backyards. The NHPA has 15,000 members with 6,200 playing in leagues, including handicap competitions. A recent innovation is indoor courts, which have been growing in number. Championships now have up to seven divisions, including men, women, boys, girls, as well as senior men, senior women, and elders over 70 years of age.

History of croquet

(originally published to Helium writing site, now gone)

Croquet is a game where players hit balls through hoops with a mallet. The origins of croquet may go all the way back to ancient times. In the Roman game of “paganica”, a small leather ball was hit with a curved stick. The aim was to hit all the designated trees in a field in the least number of shots. Another early possibility is that it developed from a field hockey game played by the ancient Greeks.

A game called “palle malle” or “palle maille” or “pallemaile” was played in France as early as the 13th century in the former province of Languedoc. A 1717 Paris publication has a picture from this era of a player hitting a small ball through an arch. The French name derives from an Italian word “pallamaglio,” with “palla” meaning “ball” and “maglio” meaning “mallet”.

When Charles II and other political exiles returned to England from France in 1660, they brought the game back with them and it soon became very popular. Wooden hammers with long handles were used to hit boxwood balls through metal rings just under a foot in diameter. In 1663, Samuel Pepys described in his diary how he spoke with the keeper of an area called Pall Mall who was sweeping some ground that had powdered cockle shells mixed with the earth. The game was played on this surface.

It seems the spot had recently been named Pall Mall, after the game that was now played there. Indeed the street in London where the king and his court played the game was called Catherine Street after Catherine of Braganza but was renamed in the early 1660s to its present name of Pall Mall.

The game all but disappeared as quickly as it had been introduced and was not revived until the early 1850s. It returned with the new name of croquet, from the French word “croc”, meaning “hook”. A croc was a stick used by French peasants that was shaped like a hockey stick.

Just as the forerunner “palle malle” came from France, so did croquet. It was introduced into Ireland in about 1852 and soon reached England. A Miss Macpherson may have brought the game from Ireland, although it seems more likely that John Jacques should be credited with its introduction. He had watched games in Ireland. When he returned to England, he promoted the game and was soon manufacturing the game’s equipment. Jacques of London is still a major supplier of croquet equipment.

Once again, the game became very popular with matches played across the country, but a lack of rules led to much arguing on the lawn. Leading player Walter Whitmore, who won the world’s first Croquet Open championship in 1867, stepped in and produced a standard set of rules. He published his book Croquet Tactics in 1868 and played an instrumental part in establishing the All England Croquet Club in the same year.

The club acquired four acres at Wimbledon and the pastime was soon second only to cricket in popularity. But the invention of lawn tennis, credited to Major Walter Wingfield in 1873, resulted in tennis courts replacing croquet lawns around the country. In 1877, the croquet club was forced to link up with tennis, resulting in the All England Croquet and Lawn Tennis Association. By 1882, the name croquet was no longer included.

Croquet languished and was soon regarded as a game only for elderly ladies. It made a comeback of sorts in 1889 when the tennis association renamed itself as the All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club but, as the new name suggests, croquet was now taking second place to tennis. The Croquet Association was formed in 1897 and moved its headquarters from Wimbledon to Roehampton in 1900 and later to Hurlingham and then Cheltenham.

The game regained its popularity. In 1903, it was described as more popular than golf. But croquet declined again, particularly between the two world wars, and it only had a few thousand players. In the post-war period, rules were changed and other steps taken to make the game more attractive, and the game revived.

It soon expanded its presence in other countries, such as the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Italy, Japan and Egypt. In the US, the number of clubs grew from six to 600 between 1974 and 1994.

Several types of croquet have developed in recent decades. Association croquet and golf croquet are the two main forms, with international rules and both played in a number of countries. Other variations include American six-wicket croquet, mondo croquet, bicycle croquet, gateball, and eXtreme croquet often set in rugged terrain. It is no longer a game only for little old ladies.

History of the game Aunt Sally

(originally published to Helium writing site, now gone)

Aunt Sally is a game where players throw batons known as sticks at a single wooden skittle called a doll or dolly. It is a pub game mainly confined to Oxfordshire, an English county west of London where it is very popular. There are many competitions, and players are quite serious. The game is also played in the surrounding counties of Berkshire, Buckinghamshire and Warwickshire.

The history of Aunt Sally is uncertain and much of it is lost in antiquity. It may go back as far as the 14th century to a game known as club kayles, which comes from the French word “quilles” meaning skittles. In this game, players threw a long club at a group of skittles, one of which was larger than the rest and placed in the middle or at the back where it would be harder to knock over. It is possible Aunt Sally developed from this game, with this kingpin becoming the only skittle.

The game of Aunt Sally may have been played by soldiers loyal to King Charles I in the 17th century when he set up his court at Oxford during the English civil war. However, details are lacking.

Another influence might have been the barbaric game of “throwing at cocks,” a popular pastime particularly during Shrovetide. The poor cock was tied to a stake in the ground. People would then pay money to throw a club at the bird. The one who killed it took it home for dinner. By the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the birds were being replaced by replicas at fairs.

A game similar to coconut shy, and possibly a forerunner to it, may also have played a role in the history of Aunt Sally. Prints from the early 19th century show a game where players are throwing a club at some skittles, each with a small object balanced on top of it. The aim seemed to be to knock the item off the skittle and perhaps win it.

The game further developed in Victorian times in the mid 19th century and became popular at fairgrounds. Here a doll on a stick would be dressed up as an ugly old maid or aunt, perhaps by misogynists, and had clay pipes placed in the mouth or attached to other parts. The idea was to knock the pipes off the doll, or at least break them, by throwing sticks. Some of the dolls were painted black, perhaps by racists.

In the late 19th century, an indoor version known as Parlour Aunt Sally was enjoyed by many people. Here a single pipe protruded from the doll’s mouth and players tried to land quoits on it. Aunt Sally reached a peak in popularity around 1890. The pastime may have fallen out of favor to some extent in the early decades of the 20th century as blatant cruelty, misogyny and racism became less acceptable.

By the 1930s, the game was being played competitively as a pub game without the doll and free of the old social connotations. The Oxford Aunt Sally League goes back to 1938 when G. Smith of the Black Boy pub won the first singles event. In 1941, the Oxford & District Aunt Sally Association was formed and there have been singles and pairs competitions ever since.

Today, about 1,400 competitors are registered to play in league on Wednesday nights from May to September at pubs around Oxfordshire. In the modern game, a single skittle or dolly, no longer dressed as a maid or aunt, is used. It is six inches high and nearly three inches in diameter and is attached to a swivel and a rod that is pushed into the earth. The top of the dolly sits two and a half feet high. Six clubs or sticks 18 inches in length and two inches thick are thrown from a distance of 30 feet with the object of hitting the dolly.

A Weaver’s Web novel excerpt: Fire at Henry’s factory

Albert ran through the crowd to the open gate and sprinted across the yard. Those trying to rescue the master and his orphans saw him and called out to him to stop. He paid no attention. At the side of the building, he found an unlocked door, probably the one his father had used minutes earlier. He went inside and felt his way through the darkness, keeping one hand on the wall as he searched for the stairs. The fire, and the light from it, hadn’t reached this area. He kicked his foot against a solid protrusion and bent down and touched a step, then a second one, and a third one. He scrambled up them and got to the first floor. Here it was much lighter, and hotter. He looked down the corridor. Flames leapt about at the other end. He saw an open door part way along and tried to get to it, but searing heat knocked him back. He took out his handkerchief, covered his face and ran headlong for the door and darted inside.

The room was full of smoke. A man lay on the floor. It didn’t look like his father – too heavy. He bent down and struggled to turn him over. Then he recognised the face he hadn’t seen in five years. It was much rounder than he remembered. In fact, his father was altogether larger. But it was definitely him.

‘Dad, wake up. Dad!’

Henry gave a faint groan.

‘It’s me – Albert.’

Henry’s eyes shot open and he tried to raise himself. ‘Albert?’

‘Yes, your son, remember?’

‘What are you doing here? I thought you were in London.’

‘London? Did Benjamin tell you …?’

‘No, I …’

‘Never mind. I’ve come to rescue you.’ The smoke was thick and Albert got down low. They were both coughing.

‘The money,’ Henry said, attempting to get up.

‘Stay down. You can get it later. The safe will still be here.’

‘No, most of it’s hidden in the desk drawer.’ He pointed to his wooden desk on the other side of the office, but it was on fire, huge flames dancing around on top of it. He went to crawl towards it and Albert pulled him back.

‘You can’t go over there.’

‘I need the money for tomorrow. I’m buying a fine house in the country.’ Henry tried to fight his son off in his desperation.

‘You won’t live that long if you keep this up.’

Henry persisted, surprising Albert with his strength, and wriggled closer to the desk.

‘We have to get out of here before we both die.’

Albert tugged at his father’s legs. Somehow Henry broke free and got up and staggered towards the desk. But the heat was too great and the smoke too thick and he fell back down. Albert shielded his own face with his handkerchief and reached out for him.

(cover of A Weaver’s Web, showing the Peterloo Massacre, Manchester, 1819)

‘Grab my hand.’

Henry didn’t.

‘Grab it!’ Albert yelled.

They were three feet apart and he couldn’t get any closer. Finally he threw the handkerchief aside and lunged forward and clutched Henry’s legs and heaved him back.

‘Ahh, let go,’ he cried. ‘You’re twisting my ankle.’

Again his father got free. To subdue him, Albert sat on his chest and held his shoulders to the floor.

‘Get off me and let me get my …’

‘Listen! You go that way and you’ll surely die.’ He tilted his head in the direction of the desk. ‘Let me take you this way,’ he said, tossing his head towards the door, ‘and we’ll get out.’

But the moment Albert eased his grip slightly, Henry squirmed about with what little energy he had left and got a few inches nearer the desk.

‘You’re squashing me,’ he gasped.

They were now almost encircled by flames.

‘Dad, this is your last chance.’

The heat became too much for Albert. He got to his hands and knees and crawled towards the door. But Henry called out to him.

‘Don’t leave me here.’

Albert stopped.

‘I beg you.’

Albert turned around and looked at him, lying helpless, nearly unconscious. He recalled the time his father had saved him from a factory. He was about to go back for him, but he thought of all the heartache Henry had caused him and the family. Whatever he did, he knew he had to act quickly as the fire was nearly up to the doorway. He realised Henry was at his mercy and decided some hasty bargaining was in order. He slid along on his stomach, got next to him and jolted him hard.

‘I’ll rescue you if you promise not to move house.’

He choked from the smoke. ‘There’ll be no money to move.’

‘And you’ll be nice to Mum and let her work and won’t put her back in the madhouse if she gets sick again?’

‘How did you know she was in the asylum?’

‘Just promise me she won’t be sent back.’

‘I promise. Hurry.’

‘And can Benjamin and Charlotte stay, and their baby, no matter what, and can Martha be reinstated?’

The heat was becoming unbearable.

‘Yes, anything. Get me out.’

Albert put his arms around Henry’s chest and pulled him a foot or so towards the door. But he glanced up and saw wild flames crisscrossing the doorway. He knew they were both doomed. He realised his mistake. Had he not spent time bribing his father, they may have got out.

‘Dad, it’s too late. I’m sorry.’

There was no response. He put his head down and kept an arm around his father as they lay on the floor. He shut his eyes.

Suddenly there was a loud thump.

– end of excerpt –

My historical novel, A Weaver’s Web, is at Amazon and other book sellers:

Amazon US: http://www.amazon.com/dp/B00H52SEEK

Amazon UK: https://www.amazon.co.uk/dp/B00H52SEEK

Amazon Australia: https://www.amazon.com.au/dp/B00H52SEEK

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Apple iTunes: https://itunes.apple.com/au/book/a-weavers-web/id775610928?mt=11

C-130 Hercules, the airlift specialist

(originally published to Helium writing site, now gone)

The catalyst for the C-130 Hercules was the Korean War which began in 1950 when many of the old World War II transports were proving inadequate in warfare. In 1951, the US approached a number of aircraft manufacturers to come up with a new transport. It would need to carry 92 passengers or 72 combat troops or 64 paratroopers, and 4-6 crew. A range of 1,250 miles was required and it would have to be capable of taking off from short, unprepared airstrips. The project went to tender and was won by Lockheed.

The YC-130 prototype made its first flight in 1954. More than 2,000 C-130s have since been built in Marietta, Georgia. There have been several models, starting with the C-130A, first delivered in 1956. Its range was found to be too short, and fuel capacity was increased. This model was in service throughout the Vietnam War, although no more were produced after 1959 when the C-130B was introduced. The new model had nearly 50 per cent more boost, better engines, increased fuel capacity, and four-bladed propellers. It was also used in Vietnam, for tactical airlift operations. After Vietnam, they were used by the Air Force Reserve and the Marine Corps. Some of the A and B models were fitted with skis and used by the Navy, redesignated as C-130Ds and LC130s respectively.

Next was the C-130E Hercules, used from 1962. It had structural improvements over previous models, more powerful engines, and greater fuel capacity. Successive models featured various improvements on previous models. For example, the C-130H had a glass cockpit, better color radar, and a night vision device. The N and P versions are used for search and rescue missions and can be refueled in-flight. Some C-130Es have been converted into civilian transports, called the Lockheed L-100. In all, there have been about 50 significant variants of the C-130 Hercules operating in 65 countries.

The C-130J is the latest model and the only one still built, although production was scaled back in 2005. This model uses state of the art technology and offers considerable cost savings compared with earlier versions. It climbs faster, flies higher, goes further, and needs less space to take off and land. It can cruise at 400 miles an hour, has a range of over 3,000 miles, and can reach an altitude of 28,000 feet.

The C-130 Hercules mainly performs airlift missions of troops and supplies into war zones. It can perform short takeoffs and landings on rough airstrips. As an airlift specialist, it has also been used for airlift support, rescue, medical missions, search and rescue, natural disaster relief, and Antarctic ice resupply. The aircraft can transport oversized cargo such as helicopters and large armored vehicles. It can carry and drop a load of up to 20 tons. The C-130 can be reconfigured quickly, allowing it to carry a variety of cargo, as well as personnel.

It is the heaviest aircraft to have ever landed on an aircraft carrier. As well as regularly carrying personnel and supplies, the C-130 can carry bombs too large for conventional bombers, including the Daisy Cutter and the MOAB, the two largest bombs. The C-130 carried Daisy Cutters in the Vietnam War to eliminate minefields and clear zones for helicopters to land. In the 1965 India-Pakistani War, Pakistan used them for attacks on bridges and enemy troops. They were used by Israeli Commandos in the Entebbe raid in 1976 to rescue 103 passengers from a hijacked airliner. For this mission, five C-130s flew more than 2,000 miles without refueling, carrying 200 troops, a number of jeeps, and a black Mercedes intended to look like the car used by Ugandan dictator Idi Amin.

Argentina used C-130s in the 1982 Falklands War to take supplies to troops on the islands. It also used the KC-130 refueler. The British used C-130s too. Several nations employed C-130s in the Gulf War in 1991: the US, the UK, Australia, New Zealand, Saudi Arabia, and South Korea. In the Afghanistan invasion, they were used by the US, the UK, Canada, Australia, Belgium, France, Italy, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, South Korea, and Spain. The Allies used them during the 2003 Iraq invasion. A C-130T model known as Fat Albert is a support aircraft to the Navy Blue Angels. It is seen at air shows where the Angels appear, performing flyovers and jet assisted takeoffs.

In the civilian sector, 22 C-130As were used by the US Forest Service as airtankers to fight bushfires, but were grounded in 2004 after two of them crashed when their wings separated due to stress cracking. In Queensland, Australia, a C-130 Hercules was called in when no ambulance or plane could take a 530 pound woman from Mount Isa to Townsville, 550 miles away.

The Hercules C-130 has served the US Air Force for more than 50 years, holding the record for continuous production of military aircraft. Primarily used as a troop and cargo aircraft, it has been successfully used for assault, bombing, search and rescue, aerial refueling, scientific research, aerial firefighting, and weather reconnaissance.

The F-4 Phantom fighter-bomber aircraft

(originally published to Helium writing site, now gone)

The F-4 Phantom, or “Phabulous Phantom” as it was affectionately known, served US military forces for a record 38 years. It first flew in 1958 before being used by the Navy as an inceptor from 1960, although it was also quite handy in other types of military missions, including ground support bombing, air superiority, air defense suppression, fleet defense, long range strike, and reconnaissance. It became the F-4 in 1962. There were various versions built over the years.

Its history can be traced back to 1952 when research by McDonnell Aircraft concluded that the navy was in need of an attack fighter. The company designed one and made an unsolicited approach to the navy with it. In 1953, the navy asked for an upgrade to the McDonnell F3H Demon, a carrier based fighter, but then decided that the new Vought F-8 Crusader fighter answered its needs. Consequently, McDonnell developed its new “Super Demon” into an all weather fighter-bomber. But the navy considered it already had the aircraft for ground attack and for dogfighting. So McDonnell further developed the aircraft into a fleet defense interceptor. More alterations were made before the company released its prototype XK4H-1. The aircraft was named the Phantom II and the navy ordered five of the versatile fighters in 1955.

The F-4 Phantom was used by the US Navy as a fleet defense fighter from 1960 and by the US Air Force from 1963 as a fighter-bomber. It flew at more than twice the speed of sound on its first air force flight – that’s a mile in just over two seconds. The aircraft set 16 world records in its time. It climbed to an altitude of more than 98,000 feet in 1959 as part of early testing, or about three times as high as most passenger jets fly. This was done by climbing to 90,000 feet before the pilot turned off the engines and glided up to the record altitude. The pilot then restarted the engines and made it back to earth. The Phantom broke records for getting to certain altitudes in quick time in 1962. It reached 10,000 feet in 34.5 seconds, 20,000 feet in 48.8 seconds, and 40,000 feet in 77.2 seconds, climbing over 700 feet a second, or something like eight times the vertical speed of a large, quick roller coaster. It also set a number of speed records.

General characteristics of the aircraft included a length of 63 feet, a wingspan of 38 feet, a weight of about 14 tons empty and 19 tons loaded, and a crew of two,. Fuel capacity was 2,000 gallons, or 3,300 gallons with external tanks. It had a range of 1,600 miles (with external tanks). Its great advantage was its thrust, allowing a pilot to enter a fight or withdraw very quickly. It could fire radar guided missiles to places outside visual range. The aircraft sometimes lacked agility but pilots reported that it was easy to fly at the extremes of its ability. It produced a fair amount of black smoke which was a weakness, although this could be prevented using afterburner. Another disadvantage was having no internal cannon. In 1967, the F-4C model started carrying an external cannon, but the cockpits didn’t have lead computing gunsights, meaning less than accurate firing. An internal cannon was finally added.

F-4s became the first aircraft to serve the US Navy, Marine Corps, and Air Force at the same time. The aircraft saw action in the Vietnam War and the Gulf War. In Vietnam, the Phantom engaged in 84 navy combat exercises. Various roles were performed by the Phantoms, including as a bomber in North Vietnam and Laos and as a ground attacker supporting troops in South Vietnam. In 1972, an F-4J downed three MiG-17s and was on its return flight when a surface to air missile damaged it. The plane was burning and couldn’t be flown conventionally. The pilots were able to fly it upside down and were eventually able to eject over water. During the Gulf War in 1990, the Phantom participated in numerous missions, losing very few planes. In all, it scored a record 280 air to air victories as well as destructing over 200 anti-aircraft sites.

Defence forces in 11 other countries used the F-4 Phantom: Australia, Egypt, Germany, Greece, Iran, Israel, Japan, Spain, South Korea, Turkey, and United Kingdom. Israel was the largest purchaser and used the aircraft in a number of Israeli-Arab conflicts. Those bought by Iran were used in the Iran-Iraq conflict in the 1980s. The United Kingdom bought 15 F-4Js after the Falklands War. Australia leased 24 F-4Es in the early 1970s, where they became a well regarded aircraft.

The F-4 Phantom has also been used for civilian purposes. One was placed on a rocket sled and crash tested to see what would happen when a plane hit reinforced concrete that might surround a nuclear plant. NASA used an F-4A for several purposes such as short programs, X-15 missions, lifting body flights, and training.

A total of 5,195 F-4 Phantoms were built between 1958 and 1981. This was the longest production run for a military aircraft at the time. About 2,900 were used by the US Air Force, 1,300 by the Navy and Marine Corps, and 900 by overseas forces. Design, production and delivery generated employment equal to over one million person years. The aircraft remained in service in the US until 1996. Israel didn’t retire them until 2004. As at 2006, they were still in use in seven nations. They have become popular museum pieces in a number of countries.

Alpine skiing

(originally published to Helium writing site, now gone)

Alpine skiing is a recreation and sport where participants put on skis and slide down mountains covered in snow. It is also called downhill skiing. Specialized resorts with all facilities have been developed where trees have been cut, snow is groomed (or smoothed), and ski lifts take skiers up the mountain. Skiers then ski down various trails or slopes.

This type of skiing is thought to have been started by Odd Kjelsberg of Winterhur, Switzerland in 1889. It developed out of cross-country skiing which goes back thousands of years as a means of transport in cold climates. Alpine skiing became popular when ski lift technology was developed to tow skiers to the mountain top.

The challenge faced by skiers is to control their speed and direction as they descend the mountain. Novices slow down or stop by pointing their skis inwards, a technique knows as “snow plowing”. More experienced skiers use a variety of methods. One way is the parallel turn where skis are kept parallel while leaning to one side or the other and turning the skis in that direction. Another technique is called “carving”, where skiers turn their knees side to side but keep their bodies straight. This allows skiers to maintain a steady speed down a slope. Private and group lessons are offered at most resorts. There are also a large number of video and other online tips and lessons for skiers these days.

A number of countries and continents use a rating system to grade the difficulty of their ski trails. Among these are North America, Europe, Japan, Australia and New Zealand. North America uses a series of colored shapes to advise skiers of the degree of difficulty they will encounter on each trail. Gradient is the main criterion determining a trail’s rating. A green circle marks the easiest slopes, while the intermediate slopes have a blue square and the difficult slopes one or more black diamonds.

Australian resorts use the same system as in North America. Europe uses the color green for beginner, blue for easy, red for intermediate and black for expert. The degree of difficult of trails for experts can vary greatly. Scandinavia uses double and triple black diamonds. Austria and Switzerland use orange for extremely difficult slopes. Japan has green for beginner trails, red for intermediate, and black for expert. New Zealand uses similar colors as North America and Australia, although true beginner trails can be hard to find, and green can be more difficult than blue or even black in America.

Another important factor for alpine skiers is the type of snow. Most skiers prefer powder, which is soft, untouched, newly fallen snow. Maneuvering in powder snow is easier than in other types of snow. Novices don’t always like it though, as it is easy to sink into if skiing too slowly. They usually prefer packed powder. Crud snow results when many skiers have already passed through the snow, churning it up and creating tracks, divots, and wet, slippery patches. This snow type is difficult for most skiers. Slush is partly melted snow and is more difficult to ski on as wet snow is heavier. Ice is harder and more slippery, making it difficult to control moves. A smooth ride is possible with crust snow but the soft, easy ride of powder is missing, and the crust can break.

Alpine skiing competitions include racing and freestyle. Skiers race down a slope while weaving in and out of gates. The winner is the skier who completes the course in the fastest time. In the downhill event, skiers can exceed 60 mph. Freestyle skiing includes moguls, aerials, half-pipes and extreme skiing. Competitions are managed by the International Ski Federation, with headquarters in Switzerland. In America, the governing body is the United States Ski and Snowboard Association.

Ski trail ratings in North America

(originally published to Helium writing site, now gone)

A number of countries and continents use a rating system to grade the difficulty of their ski trails. Among these are North America, Europe, Japan, Australia and New Zealand. North America uses a series of colored shapes to advise skiers of the degree of difficulty they will encounter on each trail. There are five different ratings: easiest, intermediate, difficult, expert and exceptional expert.

Gradient is the main consideration in giving a rating to a particular slope. Trail width, snow conditions and how often a run is groomed are also taken into account. Each ski resort assigns its own ratings, there being no overall governing body. This can mean some inconsistencies between resorts.

A sign with a green circle indicates that the slope has the easiest level of difficulty. These are usually suitable for beginners and novice skiers as well as occasional skiers who might prefer the easier slopes. These trails are normally wide and well-groomed by ski resort snow cats at least every night. Gradients range from 6 to 25 percent (a gradient of 100 percent is equal to an angle of 45 degrees). Resorts with a large number of green circle trails include the Inn at Beaver Creek, Colorado; Sonnenalp, Vail, Colorado; and Sun Valley Lodge, Sun Valley, Idaho. The Little Nell, Aspen, Colorado has no beginner slopes.

Trails with a blue square designate an intermediate level of difficulty. These slopes have gradients between 25 and 40 percent, and are usually groomed. They are normally the most popular trails at most resorts. Many of these slopes may be somewhat chopped up at certain times of the day, depending on how often the snow cats are brought out. Most resorts have a large number of blue square runs.

A black diamond suggests a slope that is regarded as difficult. They tend to be steeper than green circle and blue square trails, with a gradient of 40 percent or greater. Traditionally, these slopes were often not groomed. However, modern snow cats are quite capable of the job and most people expect runs to be groomed more frequently. The majority of resorts have plenty of black diamond trails.

A slope with a double black diamond is more difficult again and is regarded as suitable only for expert skiers. These trails can be very steep and hazardous. They might be narrow, in a windy area, heavily wooded, or have steep drop-offs. This rating was introduced in the 1980s due to technological advancements in the construction and maintenance of difficult tracks, their increasing popularity with expert skiers, and for safety considerations by trying to keep all but very experienced skiers off the more dangerous slopes.

Less common are triple black diamond runs for exceptional experts only. These trails are even more difficult and hazardous than those rated as double black diamond slopes. Black Hole at Smuggler’s Notch, Vermont has some of these slopes. At certain resorts, unrated slopes can be found that are around the double or triple black diamond degree of difficulty. A handful of thrill seekers who are usually highly competent experts ski unrated slopes that are probably better defined as cliff faces with gradients of 150-250 percent or more.

Most types of trails are offered at the majority of leading ski resorts. Many resorts only use three ratings rather than four or five. Easiest, intermediate and difficult are used at, for example, the Inn at Beaver Creek, Colorado; Fairmont Chateau Whistler, British Columbia, Canada; Sun Valley Lodge, Sun Valley, Idaho; and The Peaks at Telluride, Telluride, Colorado. Easiest, intermediate and expert ratings are used at Stein Eriksen Lodge, Deer Valley, Utah; Topnotch, Stowe, Vermont; and Sonnenalp, Vail, Colorado.

Occasionally, there are certain variations to the five standard ratings. Some trails have a sign that is a combination of two ratings, for example, a black diamond inside a blue square suggests the slope is between intermediate and difficult. Two adjacent blue squares, such as at Canada’s Mont Tremblant, mean the same thing. At Summit County, Colorado, resorts use a double diamond sign with an “EX” in the middle to indicate greater difficulty than a standard double diamond.

Trails that offer obstacles such as jumps and halfpipes are called terrain parks and are marked with an orange rectangle with its corners rounded. Terrain parks also usually use one of the standard ratings, for example, a blue square or black diamond, depending on the degree of difficulty of the obstacles.

Why skiers prefer powder snow

(originally published to Helium writing site, now gone)

Powder snow is one of several types of snow that skiers will come across on various mountains and in different atmospheric conditions. It is relatively soft, untouched, newly fallen snow. Powder snow can be heavier in coastal and high humidity areas. Lighter, drier powder snow, such as the snow that can often be found in America’s Rocky Mountains and in Japan, is preferred by skiers.

There are several reasons skiers prefer this type of snow to other types such as crud, crust, corn, slush and ice. Its smooth surface gives a feeling of floating and weightlessness that comes from gliding effortlessly over the snow. Chopped powder snow, where previous skiers have carved tracks through the snow, will not allow the same smooth ride. Packed powder, probably the most common type of snow in skiing areas, gives a reasonably smooth ride, but the sensation of floating won’t quite be there.

Worse still is crud snow. This results when many skiers have already passed through the snow, churning it up and creating tracks, divots, and wet, slippery patches. This snow type is difficult for most skiers and is mastered only by the more experienced skier. It is harder to ski on. Knees have to be kept well bent and a slower skiing speed is required. A skier is more likely to fall and must be constantly alert rather than just gliding along carefree.

A smooth ride is possible with crust snow but the soft, easy ride is missing. Sometimes the crust that forms over the top of softer snow breaks. Here, a skier can ski through the crust but the ride is often bumpy as the crust might vary in thickness or break in certain spots but not in others. Uncertainty is created in the skier’s mind if they don’t know whether the crust will take their weight.

Manoeuvring in powder snow is easier than in other types of snow. Skiers can turn, slow down, and stop more easily in powder snow. A skier tends to dig into the snow when turning, resulting in better balance, a smoother arc and more control. Speed restraint is easier as the soft, sinking snow acts as a natural brake.

Crud is far bumpier, making it difficult to perform decent turns. Slush and ice are quicker and more slippery, meaning that extra effort is required to make turns. Slush is partly melted snow and is more difficult to ski on as wet snow is heavier. As with crud and crust, a skier has to ski more aggressively for the same result and will get more tired. Ice, or icy snow, is harder and more slippery, making it more difficult to control moves. Skiers have to keep their movements smooth, slow and subtle, and they can’t slow down or stop as quickly.

Powder snow is preferable for trying out new things. It is more suitable for any jumping or aerial work as it is softer to land on. It acts as a cushion in crashes. This type of snow is best for those aiming to break their speed record or attempting new tricks. The harder types of snow are more likely to cause impact injuries when landing or crashing.

Not everyone prefers powder snow and there are certainly some disadvantages with it. Soft powder snow is not all that common and skiers might not be able to get the experience needed to master it. Skiing in powder snow can be disconcerting as skiers cannot always see their skis and feet. This type of snow does not present a solid surface to stand on and a skier can feel unbalanced and insecure. The deeper and softer the new snow, the more disturbing it can be to the novice skier. It is easy to sink into the snow if skiing too slowly. There is a tendency to ski faster on powder snow and take more risks but a skier can hit rocks and tree stumps. Skiers have to lean back or risk digging the ski tips into the snow and falling flat on their face. Twisting injuries are more usual in powder snow.

Despite these disadvantages, powder snow is still preferred by most skiers. After experience is gained on this type of snow, skiers find it easier and more satisfying than skiing on other types of snow. Its smooth surface gives a feeling of floating and weightlessness that comes from gliding effortlessly over the snow.