Trudy Myers's Blog, page 25

Rhynchosaurs

Imagine a reptilian pig with a hammerhead, no visible ears, and a parrot-like beak, and you'll have a pretty good mental picture of a rhynchosaur.

Rhynchosaurs were herbivores that in some fossil localities account for 40 to 60% of the specimens found, making them the most abundant plant eaters on land. They were reptiles with stocky bodies and a powerful beak.

Early forms were small, less than a meter long, and typically lizard-like in build. They had narrow, wedge-shaped skulls with a few small, blunt teeth for eating plants.

Later versions grew up to two meters in length. The skull in these later forms were short, broad and triangular, becoming much wider than long, giving them a somewhat hammer-head appearance, although the eyes were set close together, near the top of the beak. The broad skull accommodated powerful jaw muscles that enabled the rhynchosaurs to cut up tough plant material. The teeth were modified into broad tooth plates, and the lower jaw fit into a groove on the upper jaw, enabling the ‘cutting’ of plant fibers.

The hind feet were equipped with massive claws, presumably for digging up roots and tubers, although digging claws are usually found on the front feet. Like many animals of their time, they spread all across Pangea, and thus across the world.

And that seems to about all there is to say about the rhynchosaurs. They lived during the Triassic era (251 to 199 million years ago), dying out just before herbivore dinosaurs appeared.

I think I would have found rhynchosaurs terrifying, particularly the larger ones, even though they were basically reptilian cows or deer. Let’s face it, the larger ones were as long as a man is tall, and who’s to say they wouldn’t try munching on this new plant called human that invaded their space, even if it didn’t sit still like other plants?

What do you think? If you had a time machine, would you venture back to visit them up close and personal?

 

https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/taxa/verts/archosaurs/rhynchosauria.php

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhynchosaur

Palm Trees by Another Name

The Arecaceae are perennial flowering plants. Their form can be as climbers, shrubs, tree-like and stemless plants. They are all commonly known as palms. Those having a tree-like form are called palm trees. There are 2,600 species of Arecaceae known, most of them restricted to tropical and subtropical climates. Most palms have large, compound, evergreen leaves (known as fronds) arranged at the top of an unbranched stem. Palms exhibit enormous diversity and inhabit nearly every type of habitat within their range, from rainforests to deserts.

Modern monocots appear in the fossil record around 80 million years ago, although specific species of Arecaceae appeared 94 million years ago, according to fossilized pollen. By 60 million years ago, many of the modern specialized palms became widespread and common, much more widespread than they are today.

The use of palms is as old or older than human civilization, starting with cultivating the date palm in the Middle East some 5,000 or more years ago. Date wood, pits for storing dates, and other remains of the date palm have been found in Mesopotamian sites. If not for the date palm, human expansion into the hot and barren parts of the “old” world would have been much more difficult. The date palm provided food which was easily stored and carried on long journeys. It provided shade and protection from the desert winds. It yielded such a variety of products that practically all parts of the palm had a useful purpose.

The economic importance of Arecaceae includes coconut products, oils, dates, palm syrup, ivory nuts, carnauba wax, rattan cane, raffia, and palm wood. There are a number of palms that can be used to make wine, at least one of which turns to vinegar within a day.

It kind of makes me want to go out and hug a palm tree, for without palms, who knows how long it might have taken humans to reach this point in their civilization? Which makes me wonder, would we have grown up any wiser if we had taken a slower path to get here? Or would that early difficulty of exploring the deserts have burned us into tighter powder kegs of anger that made our history even more bloody than what we experienced?

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arecaceae

Octopuses

The octopus is a soft-bodied mollusc with 8 limbs (also known as tentacles). About 300 species are recognized, and the order of Octopoda is grouped within the class Cephalopoda, along with squids, cuttlefish, and nautiloids. The octopus is bilaterally symmetric, with one side the mirror image of the other.

The 8 appendages of an octopus trail behind them as they swim, which they do by expelling a jet of water. With 8 arms to control, they have a complex nervous system. They also have excellent sight and are among the most intelligent and behaviorally diverse of all invertebrates.

With so many types of octopuses, they are found throughout the sea, from seashores to the abyssal depths. Most species grow quickly and don’t live very long. In most species, the male dies after mating, while the female watches over the fertilized eggs until they hatch, then she dies.

The octopus has many strategies to defend themselves, including the expulsion of ink, the use of camouflage and threat displays, the ability to jet quickly through the water and hide, and even deceit. Only one specie is known to be deadly to humans, although all octopuses are venomous.

The largest known octopus specie is the giant Pacific octopus. Adults usually have an arm span up to 14 ft (4.3 m) and weigh around 33 lb (15 kg). The largest specimen scientifically documented weighed 156.5 lb (71 kg), but much larger sizes have been claimed for the giant Pacific octopus, including one that weighed 600 lb (272 kg) with an arm span of 30 ft (9 m). A carcass of the seven-arm octopus was estimated to have a live mass of 165 lb (75 kg).

The smallest specie is octopus wolfi, which is about 1 in (2.5 cm) and weighs less than 0.035 oz (1 g).

The bulbous head of the octopus contains most of the vital organs. Lacking any bones at all, even large specimens of octopus can squeeze through a 1 inch gap, which can make them quite the escape artist!

I think we all know that the tentacles can bend in any direction at any location, and that the interior surface of the tentacles are covered in circular suckers. But I didn’t know that the octopus typically uses 2 tentacles to ‘walk’ along the sea floor, while the other 6 are used for foraging.

Octopuses have 3 hearts; a systemic heart that circulates blood around the body, and two branchial hearts that pump blood through each of the two gills. The systemic heart is inactive during swimming, so the animal tires easily and prefers to crawl. Their blood contains a copper-rich protein to transport oxygen. This makes the blood very viscous and bluish in color, but it transports oxygen more efficiently in cold water with limited oxygen availability than hemoglobin.

In several sets of mythology, octopuses appear as sea monsters, from the Kraken of Norway to the Gorgon of ancient Greece, and probably many more.

I saw a tv episode once on what evolution would do with today’s species in another million years, and one of the things suggested was that at least one specie of octopus would leave the sea to seek food in the forests on land. While this is an intriguing thought, I wonder if the octopus would have to develop some kind of support for its internal organs, to keep them from dragging along the ground, or a thick skin that could resist tearing and leaving those organs scattered behind it. Because it isn’t exactly dealing with the full force of gravity while it’s in the water, but it would have to once it came ashore.

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octopus

Nimravs

I couldn’t help but look up Nimravidae; the name reminded me of ‘nimrods’, which of course have nothing to do with Nimravidae. Naturally, I didn’t know that until I looked it up.

The Nimravidae were a cat-like creature whose fossils have been found in North America and Eurasia. They are sometimes called ‘false saber-toothed cats’. They existed from about 40.4 million years ago to 7.2 million years ago, spanning some 33.2 million years.

It is thought that the ancestors of nimravids and cats diverged from a common ancestor about 50 million years ago. Nimravid diversity appears to have peaked about 28 million years ago before the family began a slow descent into extinction. This diversity was apparent in the size and shape of their teeth, as well as the size of the body. Some nimravidae were the size of modern lions, and they had various other smaller sizes down to the size of a small bobcat. Their legs and tails were proportionally shorter than those of true cats.

When nimravid first appeared, the global climate was warm and wet, but it trended cooler and drier shortly after that. This meant the lush forests were transforming to scrub and open woodland, where the nimravids flourished. North America and Asia were connected at the time, and they inhabited both. Europe was more of a cluster of islands rather than a continent at the time, but there must have been some land bridges, for the nimravids also found their way there.

Still later, the woodlands were replaced by savanna in North America and Asia, and the nimravids in those areas died out. Portions of humid forests continued in Europe for a time, but when those died out in the late Miocene, so did the rest of the nimravids.

One has to wonder if the saber-tooth tiger that Fred Flintstone put out of the house every evening was really a saber-tooth tiger or actually a nimravidae.

On second thought, there may be a tenuous connection between ‘nimrod’ and ‘nimravidae’. The dictionary tells me that ‘nimrod’ refers to a person who is good at hunting. As a carnivorous species, the nimravidae had to be good at hunting. Now I wonder if that influenced whoever named this family of creatures. Or what exactly does ‘nimravidae’ mean in whatever language they used to construct this name?

  

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nimravidae

https://www.britannica.com/animal/Nimravidae

Dimetrodon

First, the dimetrodon was not a dinosaur. It went extinct some 40 million years before the first dinosaurs came into being, so it wasn’t even a contemporary of dinosaurs. However, it is often mistaken as a type of dinosaur, probably because life that long ago is all jumbled up in people’s minds.

Having said that, the dimetrodon lived around 295-272 million years ago. Its most prominent feature was a large neural spine sail on its back, formed by elongated spines extending from the vertebrae. Without the spine, it resembled a lizard, as it walked on 4 legs and had a tail. Its tall, curved skull had teeth of different sizes in the jaws. Most dimetrodon fossils have been found in southwestern United States, specifically from a deposit called the Red Beds of Texas and Oklahoma. However, there have been some fossils found in Germany. There are over a dozen species within the dimetrodon genus.

Although reptile-like in appearance, the dimetrodon is more closely related to mammals than to modern reptiles, although it is not a direct ancestor of mammals. It is assigned to the group ‘synapsids’, a group traditionally called ‘mammal-like reptiles’.

It was probably one of the apex predators of its time, feeding on fish, reptiles and amphibians. Smaller dimetrodon species may have had different roles in their ecological niche. The back sail may have been used to stabilize its spine or to heat and cool its body. Some recent studies argue that the sail would have been ineffective at removing heat, as large species have been discovered with small sails, and small species having large sails. This would appear to rule out heat regulation as its main purpose. It is proposed that the sail was most likely used in a courtship display, such as threatening rivals or showing off to potential mates.

Most species of dimetrodon range from 6 to 15 ft, and are estimated to have weighed between 60 to 550 lbs. The largest known species is about 13 ft. The smallest is 2 feet.

I remember seeing sail-backed giant lizards in a few movies. Always, they were supposed to be at least as tall as a man at their shoulder. Something that could easily eat a man without giving it much thought. This article only gave their length, not their height at their shoulder, so I can’t tell how much the movies may have ‘blown up’ their size. Considering they were most likely using a modern lizard with an fx sail glued to their back, the film crew probably got very close to make them look a threatening size.

How about you? Seen any good dimetrodon movies lately?

 

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimetrodon#:~:text=Dimetrodon%20(%2Fda%C9%AA%CBm,member%20of%20the%20family%20Sphenacodontidae.

One Hump or Two?

A camel is an even-toed ungulate, which means it walks on 2 toes on each foot. They also have distinctive fatty deposits (humps) on the back. The Dromedary (94% of the world’s camel population) has 1 hump. The Bactrian camel (6% of the camel population) has 2 humps. The Wild Bactrian camel is a 3rd species and at less than 1% of the camel population, it is critically endangered. All of these camels are suited to a desert habitat. Except for the Wild Bactrian, camels have been domesticated for a long time, and have been a vital means of transport for passengers and cargo. As domesticated animals, they also provide food, such as milk and meat, and textiles via fiber and felt from hair.

 Sometimes the word camel is used in a wider sense, to include not only the Old World camels but also New World camelids (llama, alpaca, quanaco and the vicuna). These new world animals are technically camelids, not camels.

 Camels live an average of 40-50 years. An adult dromedary camel stands 6’1” at the shoulder and 7’1” at the hump, while Bactrian camels can be a foot taller. Camels can run in short bursts at 40 mph, and at a sustained speed of 25 mph. Dromedaries weight as much as 1,320 lbs, while Bactrians can get up to 2,200 lbs.

 The earliest known camel is called Protylopus and lived in North America 40 - 50 million years ago. It was about the size of a rabbit and lived in the open woodlands of what is now South Dakota. By 35 million years ago, it was the size of a goat and had many more traits similar to camels and llamas. Other ancient forms of camels or camelids were the Stenomylius and the long-necked Aepycamelus.

 The direct ancestor of modern camels (and perhaps of New World camelids as well) was Paracamelius, which existed 3 - 5 million years ago. It spread to South America via the Isthmus of Panama, and to the ‘Old World’ via the Bering Land Bridge. There have been surprising finds of fossil Paracamelius on Ellesmere Island (very much north of Canada and barely west of Greenland) which indicate the dromedary is descended from a larger, boreal browser whose hump may have evolved as an adaptation in a cold climate. This particular creature is estimated to have stood around 9 feet tall.

 Which just goes to show that given enough time, evolution can completely adapt to an environment that otherwise would kill the original animal.

  

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camel

Jonah in a Basilosaurus

Okay, probably not what happened, because we are talking about an extinct species here. Basilosaurus means “king lizard” and it is a genus of large, predatory, prehistoric whale, living from approximately 41.3 to 33.9 million years ago. It was first described in 1834, based on fossils found along the Gulf Coast of the US, along with a few fossils in the eastern US. It was thought to be a giant reptile, hence the -saurus ending to the name. They were later discovered to be an early marine mammal, but it was too late to change the name.

 Likewise, the genus Basilosaurus was something of a wastebasket for odds and ends of fossils that nobody thought belonged anywhere else. But most of those have been removed and placed in more correct classifications, leaving 2 species in this genus.

 Unlike modern whales, who swallow their food whole, the Basilosaurus had various types of teeth, such as canines and molars, so it probably chewed it food. It was the top predator of its environment, preying on sharks, large fish and other marine mammals, such as another early whale, the Dorudon, which seems to have been their predominant food source.

 At a size of 49-66 ft (15-20 m), Basilosaurus  is one of the largest known animals existing from 66 million to 15 million years ago. Basilosaurus Isis is  slightly smaller than Basilosaurus Cetoides by about 7 feet.

 Basilosaurus appear to be closely related to even-toed ungulates, such as giraffes and buffalo. Does that mean it was a land animal that reverted to living in the sea? I don’t know.

 It is not believed that Basilosaurus could produce high-frequency sound and echolocation, which some modern whales can do.

 Studies of a complete skeleton fossil as well as overlapping skeletal reconstruction indicate Basilosaurua had about 70 vertabrae. They were shaped much like eels, and probably moved much like eels as well, mostly at or near the ocean’s surface, as they do not appear to have had a method for diving.

 So, if a person by the name of Jonah had been at sea during the time period, I suppose he could have been eaten by a Basilosaurus. But living through being eaten would have been problematic, since the Basilosaurus would have chewed before swallowing

 Since these were marine mammals, I suppose their ancestors were land mammals that - for whatever reason - decided to return to the water. And other branches of the family went on to become giraffes and buffalo, among others? What a family tree!

 

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basilosaurus

Municipality of Anchorage

It isn’t just a city, it includes suburbs, the urban core, a joint military base and most of Chugach State Park. It is the 4th largest city in the US by area, and larger than Rhode Island.
In 1867, US Secretary of State William Seward brokered a deal tp purchase Alaska from Russia for $7,200,00, about 2 cents an acre. The idea was lampooned by his political rivals, but in 1888, gold was discovered along Turnagain Arm, just south of modern-day Anchorage.
Alaska became a US territory in 1912. Anchorage started as neither a fishing nor mining camp.There were a number of indigenous settlements along the Knik Inlet (north of Anchorage) for years. By 1911, the families of ‘Bud’ Whitney and Jim St Clair lived at the mouth of Ship Creek (on the south side of the Knik Inlet). There were joined there in 1912 by Jack and Nellie Brown.
In 1914, the Alaska Engineering Commission chose a site near the mouth of Ship Creek for a railroad construction port. The area quickly became a tent city, while a townsite was mapped out on higher ground to the south. Anchorage was incorporated on November 23, 1920.
On March 27, 1964, an earthquake of magnitude 9.2 struck Anchorage, killing 115 people and causing $116 million in damages. It was the world’s 2nd largest earthquake in recorded history. Because much of the city was built atop glacial silt, there was much soil liquefaction, leading to massive cracks in roads and the collapse of large swaths of land. Dozens of house that were originally 250 to 300 feet above sea level sank with the land they sat on, coming to a rest at sea level.
Although there have been many attempts to move the capitol to Anchorage or to a location closer to Anchorage, they have all ultimately been defeated. Even so, Anchorage has over twice as many state employees as Juneau, and is to a considerable extent the center of state and federal government activity in Alaska.
Cities often grow where they have easy access to trade routes, whether by water or land. Even Anchorage follows that stereotype, starting where an ocean inlet gave access to a creek from inland. And it continued by becoming a railroad hub, making (rail)roads where there hadn’t been any before. It currently has an international airport, which is fitting, since it is only 9.5 hours or less to most large cities in industrial countries.
We didn’t get to Anchorage when we went to Alaska; we took a cruise, and it didn’t go that far north. We may have to try again.


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anchorage,_Alaska

Good Ol’ Saxons

The Saxons were a group of early Germanic peoples whose name was given in the early Middle Ages to a large country near the North Sea coast of what is now Germany. According to one proposal, the Saxon’s earliest area of settlement is believed to have been Northern Albingia, which is close to the probable homeland of the Angles. During the late Roman Empire, the name ‘Saxon’ referred to Germanic coastal raiders. Later, they were associated with settlements along the coast of Normandy.
Later still, the Saxons, Angles, Frisians and Jutes settled in England and became known as Anglo-Saxons. These were no longer raiders. The political history of the continental Saxons is unclear until the time of the conflict between their legendary hero Widukind and the Frankish emperor Charlemagne. Charlemagne won the conflict, and organized the Saxons into a Frankish province. Although the continental Saxons are no longer a distinctive ethnic group or country, their name lives on in the name of several regions and states of Germany.
But as I stated earlier, the Saxons, Angles, Frisians and Jutes either invaded or migrated to the island of ‘Great Britain’ around the time of the collapse of the Western Roman Empire. For centuries before that, Saxon raiders had harassed the eastern and southern shores, and some had been granted permission to settle in these areas as farmers.
Tradition says that the Saxons (and others) were brought in to protect the Britons from raids by the Picts (of Scotland), Gaels (of Ireland, Scotland and the Isle of Man) and others. The Saxons were allowed to settle on the Isle of Thanet (eastern Kent) in exchange for their services as mercenaries. (Thanet is no longer an island, but is connected to the English mainland.) For whatever reason, more land was granted to the Anglo-Saxons, and more of them arrived to settle it. It is uncertain whether this was a peaceful process or not.
Eventually, in about the 6th century, the Anglo-Saxons took over all of the southeastern portions of Britain and formed 4 realms: The East saxons created the Kingdom of Essex; The Middle Saxons created the province of Middlesex; the South Saxons created the Kingdom of Sussex; and the West Saxons created the Kingdom of Wessex. Between the reigns of Egbert to Alfred the great, the kings of Wessex gained sway over the other realms and unified the country. They eventually organized it as the Kingdom of England in the face of Viking invasions.
One has to wonder if they saw the irony of becoming victims of coastal raiders, when that was how their own people started out?


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons

Our Sister Planet

What did you learn about Venus - sometimes called our sister planet - when you were in school? Unless you are still in school, chances are that at least some of those ‘facts’ have changed.
Venus has been called Earth’s twin, because it is similar to Earth in size and mass. Venus’ diameter is 7,520.8 miles, only 396.7 miles smaller than Earth’s. Its mass is 81.5 % of Earth’s. But in other ways, they are not very alike at all.
Venus is still the second planet from the Sun, it is still named after the Roman goddess of love and beauty. It orbits the sun in 224.7 Earth days. A Venus day is 243 Earth days, so its day is longer than its year. It also rotates in the opposite direction as Earth, so on Venus, the sun rises in the west and sets in the east. It still does not have any moons.
Venus has the densest atmosphere of the 4 inner planets, which consists of more than 96% carbon dioxide. At Venus’ surface, the atmospheric pressure is 92 times that of Earth, or roughly the pressure found at 3,000 ft underwater on Earth.
Venus is the hottest planet in the solar system, with a mean surface temperature of 863°F. Mercury is closer to the sun, but Venus is hotter. It is shrouded by an opaque layer of clouds of sulfuric acid. It may have had water oceans at some point in the past, but they would have vaporized due to a runaway greenhouse effect. That water vapor would have photodissociated, and the resulting free hydrogen swept into interplanetary space by the solar wind because Venus doesn’t have a planetary magnetic field. It is postulated that the surface of Venus is a desertscape interspersed with slab-like rocks and is periodically resurfaced by volcanism.
In my youth, I remember reading books and short stories that postulated that Venus weather included perpetual rain, and that Venus was a water planet. In both cases, humans from Earth had colonized Venus. But given the updated information on Venus’ atmosphere and surface, colonization may have to wait until some type of reclamation can happen. Perhaps remove some (a lot!) of carbon from the atmosphere, and set up some type of artificial field around the planet to keep the solar wind from removing any more of the lighter elements from that atmosphere. If we can lessen the green-house effect, then maybe the volcanism will also settle down a bit.


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus