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Sapiens Chapter 3 Summary – A Day in the Life of Adam and Eve

In Chapter 2 of Sapiens, we learned how the Cognitive Revolution swept across homo sapiens, giving them abilities to rule the world.

.stk-c2072fa{margin-bottom:0px !important}.stk-c2072fa-container{box-shadow:0 5px 30px -10px rgba(18,63,82,0.3) !important}.stk-9cbdf58{margin-bottom:0px !important}Sapiens Chapter 2 Summary – The Tree of Knowledge

Sapiens did not succeed overnight. Their first encounter against other human species was a failure. But then, a Cognitive Revolution transformed our brains, leading to our species becoming the rulers of the planet.

Though we have a good enough understanding of how our species became the dominant force on the planet, we still have very limited grasp on our overall history and psychology.

In Chapter 3 of Sapiens, Harari tries to peel back the curtain of ages and examine what type of life our hunter-gatherer ancestors actually lived.

For the past 200 years, an ever-increasing number of Sapiens have obtained their daily bread working as urban labour and office workers.

If we go back 10,000 years, most of our ancestors worked as farmers and herders.

However, all of these years are nothing but the blink of an eye when compared with the rest of our history. After the Cognitive Revolution some 70,000 years ago, our species has spent the majority of time living as foragers or hunter-gatherers.

Therefore, to understand our true history and psychology, we need to first understand the mindset of our hunter-gatherer ancestors.

The Theory of Evolutionary Psychology

Evolutionary Psychology is based on the idea that human emotions and behaviours have been shaped by natural selection.

The theory of Evolutionary Psychology argues that many of our present day social and psychological characteristics were shaped during the long pre-agricultural era.

Despite our progress in the fields of agriculture and industrialization, our brains are still adapted to the hunter-gatherer lifestyle. Our eating habits, conflicts and sexuality are derived from our pre-agricultural past.

This creates a disconnect between our hunter-gatherer brain and our post industrial environment centred around mega-cities, computers and technology. Though the modern environment gives us more material resources and typically longer lives, it often makes us feel alienated, depressed and pressured.

Harari explains a couple of theories that may or may not prove this point.

The Gorging Gene Theory

Today’s affluent societies are struggling under the weight of obesity. Despite the obvious disadvantages, humans don’t miss a chance to binge on the sweetest and greasiest food items they can get their hands on.

Are we really morons?

Well, not really.

The Gorging Gene theory suggests that humans are naturally attracted towards high-calorie foods, despite no obvious reasons for needing such foods for sustenance. The reasons are hidden in the deeps of time.

The ancient cravings

Imagine one of our hunter-gatherer ancestor coming across a tree laden with ripe fruits. The most sensible thing for our ancestor was to try and eat as many of the fruit as possible. After all, in those days, humans had to compete for food with all manner of animals and it was costly to miss the chance. Over the years, the instinct of gorging on high-calorie foods whenever possible got hard-wired into our genes.

Today, we might be living in houses with over-stuffed refrigerators, but our DNA still thinks we are in the grasslands of Africa, searching for our next source of high-calorie food.

The gorging gene theory is generally widely accepted in the academic community. Also, it does make sense even from a logical point of view when we think about own habits. Despite the increased health consciousness, we are still attracted towards high-calorie food items.

The Ancient Commune Theory

While the gorging gene theory is accepted, there are other radical theories that many scholars disagree with.

One such theory is the Ancient Commune theory. According to this theory, forager bands lived in communes. There was no concept of private property, monogamous relationships and even fatherhood. In such a band, a woman could have intimate relationships with several men simultaneously. Parenting was a joint activity undertaken by all the adult members of the band.

Those who believe in the Ancient Commune theory argue that modern day problems such as infidelity and divorce are a result of imposing nuclear family and monogamy. According to them, nuclear families and monogamy are incompatible with our biological software.

Many scholars vehemently reject this theory. According to them, monogamy and nuclear families are part of core human behaviour. Though ancient hunter-gatherer societies were far more open than modern day societies, they were still made up of individual families comprising of parents and their children.

Moreover, majority of cultures don’t follow the Ancient Commune way-of-life. Even in modern states that follow some form of monarchy, political authority is passed within the family from father to son.

In my opinion, the Ancient Commune theory does not seem to hold a lot of weight. We don’t have a lot of historic precedent that supports this theory. However, there is every chance that it might have been a rare form of society in the pre-agricultural era.

The Challenges of Knowing our History

The Cognitive Revolution occurred sometime 70,000 years ago. The Agricultural Revolution came about 12,000 years ago. Thousands upon thousands of years separated these two pivotal moments in human history.

How did our ancestors live during this period?

What were their day-to-day lives really like?

Despite the various theories, there is still a huge gap in our knowledge about the history of our species. And filling this gap is a very challenging task.

Some of the major challenges are as follows:

There are literally no written records from the age of foragers.Most archaeological evidence comprises of fossilized bones and stone tools. Such things can help us understand the physiology of archaic humans. However, they don’t reveal much about the beliefs of our ancestors.The reconstruction of ancient hunter-gatherer lives based on artefacts is also problematic. Firstly, the ancient foragers used very few artefacts. Second, even the few artefacts they did use had a very limited role in their lives. This is unlike a typical modern human that owns a staggering amount of artefacts.

One significant way to understand our forager ancestors is to look at modern forager societies. These societies can be studied directly by anthropological observation. However, this approach has its own set of problems.

All modern forager societies have been somewhat influenced by neighbouring agricultural and industrial societies. In today’s world, no forager society is truly isolated from the relentless progress of humanity.Modern forager societies only exist in areas with difficult climate and inhospitable terrain. Studying them may provide a misleading model for ancient forager societies. For example, a modern day forager society living in the Kalahari desert may have a very different approach to life when compared to an ancient forager society living in the fertile Yangtze river valley.Individual hunter gatherer societies are usually quite different from each other. The early European settlers to Australia encountered 200-600 tribes of the Aboriginal people. Each tribe had its own language, customs and rules. One could only imagine how different the ancient hunter gatherer tribes would have been from each other.

The usual attempts about trying to paint a natural way of life for Sapiens misses the point.

After the Cognitive Revolution, there was no single natural way of life for Sapiens governed by their biological constraints. Cultural choices came to the fore-front, based on a bewildering number of possibilities and combinations.

Generalizations about Homo Sapiens

Despite the difficulties described in the previous section, some generalizations are still possible about the life of our hunter-gatherer ancestors.

People lived in small bands consisting of several dozen or at most several hundred members. Every member in the band was a human.There was one exception to the only human rule. The human bands also probably had dogs as members. Dog was first animal to be domesticated by humans before the Agricultural Revolution. The earliest evidence is found from 15,000 years ago, but it is possible that our ancestors were friendly with dogs even before that. Dogs were used for hunting, fighting and alarm system against other wild beasts or human intruders.Members of a band knew each other very intimately, and were surrounded throughout their lives by friends and relatives.Neighbouring bands may act as competitors or friends. There is a possibility that bands joined to form bigger entities such as tribes to celebrate religious festivals or fight against foreigners.Trade was present between bands, but mostly restricted to prestige items such as shells, amber and pigments. There is no evidence of trading staple goods such as fruits and meat. No band depended on the other for their basic needs.Bands usually lived on the road. They moved from place to place based on changing seasons, animal migration patterns or plant growth cycles.Wanderings outside their home turf and exploring new lands caused the ancient humans to eventually reach all parts of the planet.Despite all the wandering, the human bands also settled down in seasonal or permanent settlements on some occasions. Fishing villages existed as early as 45,000 years ago in Indonesia and may have acted as the spring-board to the eventual invasion of Australia.A Day in the Life of a Sapiens Forager

Based on the generalizations and some evidence, it is possible to construct a rough idea about a day in the life of a Sapiens forager.

Though we often imagine our ancestors in the popular image of a hunter, the main activity of hunter gatherers was actually gathering. They scrounged for termites, picked berries, dug for roots, trapped rabbits.

Foraging not only was for finding food, but also knowledge. To survive, they needed a mental map of their territory. They had to know the growth patterns of various plants and habits of different animals. They also needed knowledge about different types of food based on nourishment and which foods made you sick. While wandering the lands, they had to keep track of the seasonal progress and warning signs of impending thunderstorms.

Each individual had to understand the making of a stone-knife, mending a torn cloak, setting traps, facing avalanches, dealing with snake-bites or hungry lions. There was a culture of apprenticeship and practice within the forager bands.

Ancient Hunter-Gatherer

An average forager had a wider, deeper and more varied knowledge of their surroundings than any modern human. Today, most people in the industrial societies don’t need to know about the natural world in order to survive. Humans have become specialized to tiny areas of expertise. For a vast majority of life’s necessities, we rely on other experts, who focus on their own tiny area of expertise.

The human collective knows a lot today. But at the individual level, the ancient foragers were probably the most knowledgable and skilful people in history.

In general, our forager ancestors enjoyed a more rewarding lifestyle than most peasants, shepherds, labourers and office clerks over the years.

In a typical developed or affluent societies, a person works an average of 40-45 hours a week. In developing countries, the average working hours could jump to 60 and sometimes, even 80 hours a week.

Hunter-gatherers typically had to work only 35-45 hours a week even in a place like the Kalahari desert. A typical band would hunt only one out of three days. Gathering activities would consume 3 to 6 hours daily. Hunter-gatherers in more fertile places spent even less time on these activities. On top of that, they did not have to perform any household chores such as washing dishes, cleaning carpets, changing diapers and so on.

Our ancient ancestors certainly led more interesting lives when compared to their descendants during agricultural and industrial revolution. They would roam the forests and meadows, gather mushrooms, dig roots, catch frogs. By early afternoon, they would be back to camp and have lunch. The rest of the day would be spent gossiping, telling stories and playing with children. Of course, they had to face occasional dangers such as tigers and snakes, but on the upside, they had no reason to fear automobile accidents or industrial pollution.

When compared to modern humans, our ancestors also received ideal nutrition. They were less likely to starve or lead a malnourished life. They were certainly taller and healthier than the peasants of today. They also enjoyed a far more varied diet unlike farmers of today, who are dependent on a single staple food such as wheat, rice or potatoes. Our ancestors had berries and mushrooms for breakfast, fruits, snails and turtles for lunch, and rabbit steak with wild onions for dinner. Moreover, the menu changed everyday.

Lastly, our ancestors did not have to suffer from severe infectious diseases. Most of the diseases (such as measles, small pox and tuberculosis) that have plagued agricultural and industrial societies originated in domesticated animals and jumped to humans. Ancient foragers, who had only domesticated dogs, were free from exposure to these diseases. Moreover, they roamed in small bands that could not sustain epidemics.

This segment of the chapter was a real eye-opener. In our modern lives, we have often overlooked the advantages of simplicity. Our progress has made us blind to the wonders of the natural world. On top of it, we are enslaved by the system that glorifies chasing after materialistic things. We have a plethora of facilities at our disposal, but hardly any time to enjoy them. Relentless growth and industrialization has made our major cities unlivable and turned them into hotbeds of viruses. Ironically, a recent pandemic of unknown origins slammed the brakes on our fast-paced lives and allowed us to rethink our priorities.

Spiritual Beliefs

The basics of forager economics can be reconstructed with some confidence based on quantifiable factors. But it is much harder to understand the spiritual beliefs of the hunter-gatherers.

How was the spiritual and mental life of our ancestors?

Most scholars agree that our ancestors followed the principles of Animism.

Animists believe that there is no barrier between humans and other beings. Almost every place, every animal, every plant and every natural phenomenon has awareness and feelings and can communicate with humans.

According to Animism, there are no barriers between humans and other beings. Also, there is no hierarchy as well. Non-human entities do not exist to serve man. Also, there are no all powerful gods who run the world. The world does not revolve around humans or any other beings.

However, despite this theory, Harari acknowledges that we have very little information about what our ancestors truly felt. We have no clue about which festivals they celebrated, which spirits they prayed to or what stories they told each other. This part is one of the biggest holes in our understanding of human history.

Sociopolitical World of Foragers

The sociopolitical aspects of the foragers is also another area about which we know next to nothing.

Some of the things that many scholars believe are:

Existence of private propertyBands comprising of nuclear familiesMonogamous relationships

However, as we saw earlier, there is widespread disagreement on these topics as well within the scientific community. It is possible that different bands followed different structures. Some bands may have been hierarchical, tense and violent. Others may have been laid-back and peaceful.

Ultimately, it is easy to come up with theories but hard to conclude anything unless more evidence is found.

Peace or War?

This is another thorny question about forager societies that we have not been able to answer conclusively.

Some scholars imagine hunter gatherer societies as peaceful paradises. According to them, war and violence began only with the start of Agricultural Revolution, when people started to accumulate private property.

Other scholars maintain that the world of ancient foragers was cruel and violent. According to them, there were frequent conflicts and bloodshed among tribes.

Both schools of thought are probably castles in the air with little evidence to back them up. The archaeological findings are both scarce and opaque.

What evidence would remain of a war that took place tens of thousands of years ago?

There were no fortifications or walls. No swords and shields. No artillery shells.

The condition of fossilized human bones is also hard to interpret. A fracture might indicate a war wound or an accident. Also, death can be caused by trauma to soft tissues, leaving no visible marks on the bones.

Scholars usually ask questions they can reasonably answer. However, it is vital to keep asking difficult questions for which no answer may be immediately available. Otherwise, we might be tempted to dismiss 60,000 to 70,000 years of human history.

We should not assume that since there is no evidence, the ancient hunter gatherers did nothing of importance.

In truth, our ancestors did a lot of remarkable things. They shaped the world in ways that we cannot fathom today. When we visit the Siberian Tundra, or the Amazonian rainforest or any other remote place on the planet, we assume that no one has walked their before us.

This is not true.

Our forager ancestors were probably there before us and even brought dramatic changes to these remote places.

We take a look at some of these dramatic changes in the next chapter to the saga of Homo sapiens.

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What happened when the first human beings reached the shores of Australia? Find out how humans wiped out numerous species from the face of Earth

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Sapiens Chapter 2 Summary – The Tree of Knowledge

The second chapter of Sapiens by Yuval Noah Harari continues the story of Homo sapiens.

In the first chapter (An Animal of No Significance), we learnt that the rise of Homo sapiens led to the eventual extinction of all other human species. However, it was far from a smooth transfer of power.

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Animals resembling a lot like modern humans started walking the Earth some 2.5 million years ago. However, an early human was an animal of no significance in the grand scheme of things.

In fact, the first recorded encounter between the Sapiens and Neanderthals ended with Neanderthal victory. This happened a 100,000 years ago when Sapiens groups first attempted to migrate to the North of Levante into Neanderthal territory. However, they failed to secure a firm footing in the region, probably due to a combination of factors. Eventually, they retreated back to their territory.

Nevertheless, the Sapiens returned. Beginning around 70,000 years ago, Sapiens bands left Africa once again. This time they were so successful that they ended up wiping out the Neanderthals and all other human species from the face of the Earth.

Their movement was swift. In a short period of time, Sapiens had reached Europe and East Asia. About 45,000 years ago, they even crossed the open sea and reached Australia. This period saw the invention of boats, lamps, bows and arrows. The first definitive signs of art such as the Stadel lion-man emerged during this period along with clear evidence for religion, commerce and social stratification.

What was the change that caused this remarkable shift in the progress of Sapiens?

What transformed an obscure human species into the masters of the planet?

In this chapter, Harari tries to answer these questions.

The Cognitive Revolution

Based on the poor achievements of the first group of Sapiens, the scholars have concluded that the internal structure of the Sapiens brain was much different from ours. Though they looked like us, their cognitive abilities (learning, remembering, and communicating) were quite limited.

However, the people who drove the Neanderthals to extinction, reached far-flung places like Australia and carved intricate pieces of art were as intelligent, creative and sensitive as us. The unprecedented achievements of the second group of Sapiens were a product of a revolution in their cognitive abilities.

Sometime between 70,000 to 30,000 years ago, a Cognitive Revolution took place.

It is hard to pin down the exact reason for this revolution. The dominant theory suggests that accidental genetic mutations changed the inner wiring of the brain of Sapiens. This allowed them to think in unprecedented ways and communicate using a new form of language. We can also call it the Tree of Knowledge.

Why Language Matters?

Communication is not special as such. Every animal on this planet communicates in some form.

In fact, many animals including apes and monkeys even use vocal signs. For example, green monkeys have different warning call signs for eagles or lions. Though Sapiens can produce more complex sounds, whales and elephants have equally impressive abilities.

So what is so special about our language?

There are two main theories.

First, our language is supple . We can combine a limited number of sounds to produce an infinite number of sentences with distinct meanings. Instead of a simplistic call sign for a lion, we can describe the exact location of the lion.Second theory is known as the gossip theory. We are social animals and cooperation is the key to our survival and reproduction. More than the location of lions or bisons, it is important for humans to know about each other. Even in a band of 50 members, there is a staggering amount of interpersonal information to store and track. Our language allowed us to build bigger bands by leveraging the power of gossip.

In my opinion, the gossip theory is a very interesting way to look at things. Even in a small group of people, there is a web of interconnected relationships between individuals. Gossip keeps floating around from one individual to the other. While it can be frowned upon, gossip results into information that tells us whom to trust and whom to avoid.

Harari specifies that both the theories may be correct. But there is another unique feature of our language that is far more important. It is the ability of humans to transmit information about things that do not exist at all. Sapiens is the only species that can talk about entities that they have never seen, touched or smelled.

In Harari’s view, this unique feature of our language led to the emergence of legends, myths, gods and religions. The invention of fiction gave rise to collective imagination, allowing Sapiens to co-operate effectively in large numbers even with strangers.

While other animals such as ants and bees also work together, they do so in a very rigid manner and only with close relatives. Wolves and chimpanzees can also co-operate effectively, but only with a small number of individuals they know intimately.

Ants working together

However, Sapiens are different. Two complete strangers following the Catholic religion can fight for each other simply on the basis of following the same ideology. Two citizens of America, who don’t know each other, can work together to defend the country, because they believe in the country called America. Sapiens can collaborate in larger and larger groups by cultivating a sense of common myth or identity.

According to Harari, there is not much difference between a primitive tribe cementing their social order by believing in spirits and a multinational organization with thousands of employees working together for profits. Spirits and multinational organizations are both a figment of our imagination. Both are part of the fiction we have invented.

This may be one of the most polarizing points about this chapter. Harari labels gods and religions as nothing more than legends and myths. Of course, a lot of people may vehemently disagree with this notion. But that is the whole point. Since a lot of us believe so strongly in religion, it is such a powerful force to unite people towards a common goal. The same is the case for companies. A company is nothing but legal fiction conjured by a team of lawyers. It holds authority because we believe in a set of laws that dictate the creation of a company.

In essence, Cognitive Revolution created a dual reality. On one side is the objective reality of rivers, trees and lions. Something you can touch and feel. Second is the imagined reality of nations, corporations and religions.

Breaking Free of the Genome

This ability to create imagined realities out of language and words enabled a large number of strangers to co-operate with each other effectively. Also, it opened the door for rapid change.

By altering the myths people believe in, it is also possible to alter the way people co-operate. For example, during the French Revolution of 1789, the French population switched almost overnight from believing in the myth of the divine rights of kings to believing in the myth of sovereignty of the people.

Cognitive revolution opened a fast lane of cultural evolution, bypassing the traffic jams of genetic evolution.

Sapiens could change their behaviour rapidly in accordance with the changing needs. This was drastically different from other social animals where the behaviour is largely determined by their genes. Significant changes in social behaviour cannot occur without genetic mutations.

Ever since the Cognitive Revolution, Sapiens have been able to change their behaviour quickly. Also, transmission of new behaviour to future generations has happened without any need for genetic change. Sapiens have been able to transform their social structures, interpersonal relations, economic activities, governing styles in a matter of a decade or two.

Here, Harari gives the example of a hypothetical resident of Berlin born in the year 1900. Within a span of 100 years, the resident would have spent the childhood years in the Hohenzollern Empire. The adult years would have been in the Weimar Republic, the Nazi Third Reich and then, the Communist East Germany. However, the resident would have died as a citizen of a democratic and reunified Germany. At the end, the resident would have been a part of five different sociopolitical systems within a span of 100 years without any change to the person’s DNA.

This flexibility is the key to the success of Sapiens. In a one-to-one fistfight, Neanderthals would have probably beaten a Sapiens. But, in a conflict of hundreds, Neanderthals would not stand a chance.

Even if the Sapiens lost the first round, they could quickly invent new strategies to win the next time. While Neanderthals could communicate and share information about their enemies, they could not compose fiction. As a result, they had no way of co-operating effectively in large enough numbers.

In my view, Cognitive Revolution is the underpinning of human evolution and success. Even cave-dwelling Sapiens used tools. The ancient spearhead was manufactured by a single person in a few minutes with the help of close friends. Yet, in a matter of 30,000 years, we have gone from spears to intercontinental ballistic missiles with nuclear warheads. This is because of the co-operation of millions of strangers (workers in uranium mines to the theoretical physicists in ivy league institutes) from all over the world. Without Cognitive Revolution, all of this would not have been possible.

Separation of Biology and History

Cognitive Revolution is the point when history became independent from biology.

The relation between biology and history framed the future of our species.

Biology sets the basic parameters for the behaviour and capacities of every species including the homo sapiens.The arena of biology, however, is extremely large. Within this arena, Sapiens can play an astounding variety of games. Each generation builds upon the knowledge of the previous generation creating a Tree of Knowledge.After the Cognitive Revolution, the behaviour of Sapiens could not be accurately determined based on biology alone. It was important to describe the historical evolution of their actions.

But what happened after the Cognitive Revolution?

What games did our ancestors play in the arena of history?

Much of how our ancestors lived and evolved determines where we are today and how we feel about life.

All of these questions and more are discussed in the next chapter of the book.

.stk-fa3ae94{margin-bottom:0px !important}.stk-fa3ae94-container{box-shadow:0 5px 30px -10px rgba(18,63,82,0.3) !important}.stk-2ed806e{margin-bottom:0px !important}Sapiens Chapter 3 Summary – A Day in the Life of Adam and Eve

Who were our ancestors? What did they really feel? How did they live? The answer to these questions shape our identity even today. Find the truth…

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Sapiens Chapter 1 Summary – An Animal of No Significance

The first chapter of the path-breaking book Sapiens by Yuval Noah Harari lays the groundwork for what the book is about.

The book is about the story of Homo Sapiens. That is, us.

It is our story.

The Beginning

The first chapter (An Animal of No Significance) starts with a high-level timeline of our origin.

14 billion years ago, the Big Bang happened. It was the moment when matter, energy, time and space came into existence. This gave birth to the laws of physics.300,000 years after the Big Bang, matter and energy coalesced into complex structures. First, there were atoms. Atoms combined into molecules, leading to the birth of chemistry.4 billion years ago, on a seemingly insignificant planet known as Earth, organisms composed of these molecules came into existence. This was the beginning of biology.70,000 years ago, organisms belonging to the species called homo sapiens started to form cultures. This led to the birth of history.

This timeline may feel rather simplistic. However, simplicity is the book’s greatest asset. You get a very quick snapshot of the history of our Universe and our place within it. In my opinion, this is one of the greatest qualities of the book. Profound facts are presented in simple manner.

Reading this, one point is absolutely clear. No matter how old the Universe may be, our species took a significant position only 70,000 years ago.

Not a really long time if you ask me!

However, this does not mean that humans did not exist before the 70,000 years mark.

Animals resembling a lot like modern humans had started walking the Earth some 2.5 million years ago. But these early humans were hardly more remarkable when compared with any other species of animals that roamed the planet. In fact, these prehistoric humans were insignificant animals with no more impact on their surroundings than gorillas, fireflies or jellyfish.

Moving on, Harari divides these 70,000 years into 3 distinct parts:

First, there was the Cognitive Revolution some 70,000 years ago.Second, there was the Agricultural Revolution some 12,000 years ago.Finally, 500 years ago, we had the Scientific Revolution. We are still kind of living through it.

Again, this is a great way to break down the history of Homo sapiens into high-level epochs.

What is a Species?

Moving on, Harari gives a great definition of the term species.

Typically, animals belong to the same species if they tend to mate with each other to produce fertile offspring. It is important for the offspring to be fertile.

For example, horses and donkeys can potentially mate with each other to produce offsprings – mules. However, mules are sterile. This means that horses and donkeys are technically two different species.

On the other hand, bulldogs and spaniels may look every different. But they can happily mate with each other to produce a new breed known as Cockerbull. The new breed can also re-produce more of its kind.

As per convention, species that evolve from a common ancestor are bunched together into a genus. For example, lions, tigers, leopards and jaguars are basically different species under the same genus known as panthera. Lions are called panthera leo. Jaguars are called panthera onca. Tiger is panthera tigris.

Similarly, we are all known as homo sapiens. Sapiens (meaning wise) is the name of the species. Homo is the genus.

This opens up a big question.

If we are a species belonging to the genus homo, are there other species in the same genus?

The answer to this mystery was sort of hidden for a long time. Homo sapiens preferred to view themselves as something apart from ordinary animals. All other animal species had ancestors and siblings. However, homo sapiens were presented like orphans that had no family and no cousins.

But this is not true.

In fact, at one point of time, there were several species of humans that roamed the Earth just like us. Also, humans didn’t appear out of thin air. Almost 6 million years ago, a single female ape had two daughters. One of them was the ancestor of all chimpanzees. The other happened to be our grandmother.

The Origin of Humans

Humans (basically all members of the genus homo) evolved in East Africa almost 2.5 million years ago. About 2 million years ago, some of these men and women left their homeland and journeyed to North Africa, Europe and Asia.

Different geographical regions needed different survival capabilities. The forests of Europe were snow-covered and cold. On the other hand, the islands of the Pacific such as Indonesia had tropical climates. Humans evolved in different directions, giving rise to several different species.

We had the Neanderthals in Europe and Western Asia. In order to adapt to the cold climate of the Ice Age, Neanderthals were bulkier and muscular.

The eastern regions of Asia were populated by Homo erectus or the Upright Man.

On the islands of Java lived Homo soloensis. These humans were more suited to life in the tropical regions.

On another island of Flores, ancient humans became dwarves. These humans reached a maximum height of 1 metre and are known as Homo floresiensis. Since the island of Flores was poor in resources, it created an evolutionary block for bigger humans, who needed more food to survive.

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In 2004, the scientific community was shocked by the discovery of Homo floresiensis, our hobbit-like human ancestors. Their finding has shaken the very foundation of our knowledge about human evolution.

In fact, it is perfectly possible that many more such human species would have existed as the wheels of evolution turned in East Africa and elsewhere. Though it is hard to say how many species of humans were present at that time, it is evident that all of them existed during the same time period, overlapping each other much like how different species of panthera genus co-exist today.

None of these other human species exist today.

Evolution of Humans

At this point, Harari delves into the evolution of humans, specifically into a couple of aspects that make us stand apart from other animals – bigger brain size and upright posture.

Bigger Brains Means Bigger Gains?

While there were a lot of common features shared by the various human species, the most notable is that humans have extraordinarily large brains.

Human brain size is much larger than that of an average mammal. Modern Sapiens i.e. us have a brain size of 1200 to 1400 cubic centimetres. Neanderthals had even bigger brains.

Today, we might view a bigger brain as a huge evolutionary advantage. However, for a large part of our existence, this was far from reality.

Brain is a tremendous energy guzzler. Even though it accounts for just 2 to 3 percent of our body weight, the brain consumes one-fourth of our body energy.

This was not a great thing for our ancestors.

To fulfil the energy demands of the body, the archaic humans had to spend more time searching for food. Our muscles became weaker as most of the energy was consumed by the brain. This made us slower and weaker from a physical point of view.

This wasn’t a good strategy for survival in the wild lands of the savannah. It’s not like you can defeat a lion by the force of your logical arguments and the lion would simply walk away.

In my opinion, this is a great insight. We are so used to the supremacy of brain power since we are physically protected by the walls of society. But, if you remove all that, the human body is surprisingly weak to face the dangers of the natural world.

Standing Tall

Another specific human trait is the ability to walk upright. This had a lot of technical advantages.

It was now easier to scan the savannah grasslands for signs of food or even enemies. Hands were made free from the burden of walking and could be used for wielding weapons or throwing stones. In fact, humans were able to produce basic tools as early as 2.5 million years ago.

However, walking upright also had its downsides. The skeleton of our primate ancestors had evolved for millions of years to support a creature that walked on all fours and had a small head. Adjusting to the upright position was a challenge, thanks to the extra-large cranium. Mankind paid for this evolutionary change with back-pains and stiff necks.

Women paid an even more steeper price because of this change. An upright posture meant narrower hips, constricting the birth canal. With the heads of human babies growing bigger, death during childbirth became a major hazard.

Those women who gave birth earlier when the infant’s head was still small fared better and lived longer. Natural selection started to favour earlier births. But this meant human babies were born prematurely when compared to other animals. This is the evolutionary reason human babies are frail and dependent on their parents for sustenance for many years.

However, earlier births also had positive consequences.

Since it was difficult to take care of children alone, mothers were not able to go searching for food and other resources. This led to the evolution of tribes for protection and the formation of strong social ties.

Moreover, underdeveloped babies meant they could be educated and socialized to a far greater extent than any other animal. This resulted in increased learning and development opportunities of humans.

This is a remarkable point. Walking upright seems so natural today. But in reality, it was a compromise we made for survival in the grasslands. And while it caused a lot of other issues, it proved a stepping stone towards society in the long run.

The Violent Nature of Humans

Despite all the seeming advantages of a large brain, use of tools, superior learning and complex social structures, humans remained weak and marginal creatures for a full 2 million years.

In fact, humans were pretty much in the middle of the food chain. Often, they were dependent on scavenging for subsistence.

It was only 400,000 years ago that several human species started to hunt bigger game on a regular basis. Only in the last 100,000 years, humans jumped to the very top of the food chain.

So what changed for the humans?

The domestication of fire was probably one of the biggest leaps for humankind. With fire, humans had a dependable source of light and warmth. Fire was also a deadly weapon against prowling lions.

Fire allowed humans to cook food, leading to a significant increase in their food sources. Humans could now consume potatoes, wheat and rice. Cooking of food using fire also made it easily digestible. This removed the need for larger intestines. Smaller intestines consumed less energy to digest the food. The surplus energy could be used by the brain, leading to its rapid development.

This relatively swift jump to the top of the food chain created significant consequences for the natural order.

Other dominant animals such as lions or sharks had reached the top of the food chain very gradually. This enabled the ecosystem to develop checks and balances that prevent lions and sharks from wreaking too much havoc on the natural order. Other animals also evolved to counter the threat of lions and sharks.

However, humankind leaped to the top so quickly that the ecosystem had no chance to adjust accordingly. In fact, the humans also didn’t adjust that well with their newfound supremacy.

Unlike most predators that are majestic creatures, homo sapiens have evolved like dictators. Despite their apparent supremacy, humans are still full of fear and anxiety about their position. This makes humans more cruel and dangerous. The human history is littered with wars, bloodshed and catastrophes.

The Rise of Homo sapiens

About 70,000 years ago, another species of humans from East Africa spread into the Arabian Peninsula and from there, they quickly overran the entire Eurasian landmass. This species was the Homo sapiens.

Ultimately, all the other human species disappeared from the face of the Earth. Only homo sapiens remained.

What could be the reason for this?

In the academic circles, there are two main theories about this.

The first theory is known as the Interbreeding Theory. This theory proposes that homo sapiens bred with other human species until the two populations merged. For example, in Eurasia, the Sapiens merged with the Neanderthals. In East Asia, the Sapiens merged with the local Homo erectus.

The second theory is the Replacement Theory. This theory signals incompatibility, revulsion and perhaps, even genocide. The Homo sapiens basically destroyed all the other species of humans in some sort of ethnic cleansing. According to Harari, this would probably have been the first ethnic cleansing in the history of our planet.

Generally, the Replacement Theory has been a more agreed theory in the scientific community. However, some recent DNA studies have also revealed the existence of Neanderthal DNA in modern humans. Though the amount of this DNA is very less, it does indicate that some amount of interbreeding may have happened between the human species. However, this evidence is not enough to completely debunk the Replacement Theory.

The Replacement Theory also gains traction due to the proven penchant for violence in our species even today. Tolerance is not a trait that we possess in great amount. Also, there would have been a fight for the limited resources during the prehistoric times.

The Sapiens, with their better tools and technology, would have been able to establish dominance, driving other species towards an eventual extinction.

But what made the Sapiens so successful? Read the summary of the second chapter to find out.

.stk-281e88d{margin-bottom:0px !important}.stk-281e88d-container{box-shadow:0 5px 30px -10px rgba(18,63,82,0.3) !important}.stk-132b6db{margin-bottom:0px !important}Sapiens Chapter 2 Analysis – The Tree of Knowledge

Sapiens did not succeed overnight. Their first encounter against other human species was a failure. But then, a Cognitive Revolution transformed our brains, leading to our species becoming the rulers of the planet.

The post Sapiens Chapter 1 Summary – An Animal of No Significance first appeared on Saurabh Dashora.

Why was Philip of Macedon assassinated?

Your dreams soar higher than the sky,
of greater fields to sow,
of palaces grander than men have ever known,
But death is coming, sudden, unseen,
that robs us of our distant hopes.

When Philip of Macedon heard these words in a song offered in his honour, he automatically assumed it spoke about the upcoming demise of the Persian King.

After all, having subdued the entirety of Greece, Philip was at the height of his power. In fact, he was about to launch the invasion of Persia. A cherished dream that he had harboured from a long time.

What could possibly go wrong?

.stk-a520f12{margin-bottom:0px !important}.stk-a520f12-container{box-shadow:0 5px 30px -10px rgba(18,63,82,0.3) !important}.stk-9cbdf58{margin-bottom:0px !important}How did Philip of Macedonia conquer Greece

Do you know how Philip of Macedon, Alexander’s Father, forged the Macedonian Empire and became the Master of Greece?

Philip’s Assassination

On the eve of Philip’s departure to Asia, he decided to entertain visitors in the grand Macedonian style. He thought it would be his last opportunity to do so for a long time as he was set to embark on the Persian campaign.

Friends, dignitaries and ambassadors from all over Greece and even beyond attended the lavish festivities at Vergina. Though Pella was the administrative capital of Macedonia, the ancient Vergina was the heartland and the burial place of Kings.

All in all, it was a magnificent occasion.

That morning, Philip entered the theatre, clothed in a shining white robe. He had dismissed his bodyguards, trusting in the benevolence of his loyal subjects. On his one side was his soon-to-be son-in-law, Alexander of Epirus. On the other side was his son, Alexander the Great. Crowds were cheering for him. It was a glorious moment. Something Philip had achieved after years of hard-work and struggle.

It was at that point when a young man approached the King. Since this particular young man was a bodyguard and familiar to the court members, no one paid any heed to him. No one noticed the beautifully inlaid Celtic dagger that he pulled out from inside his cloak.

However, everyone was shocked when the young man rushed towards the King and plunged the knife into Philip’s heart.

Philip collapsed on the floor even as blood poured out of his wound. It is said that the last thing he saw were the eyes of his son, Alexander, staring down at him.

So, who was this young man that killed the most powerful man in Greece?

The Story of Pausanias

The young man was Pausanias and he belonged to a noble family in the mountain district of Orestis. He had found his place at the King’s court mainly due to his beauty.

In ancient Greece, homosexual relationships were quite common, specially Pederasty. Pederasty was a sort of romantic relationship between an older male and a younger male usually in his teens. This type of relationship was pretty socially acknowledged.

It is said that Philip had been in such a relationship with young Pausanias. However, as Pausanias grew up and reached full manhood, the King apparently lost interest. Instead, he turned his attention towards a younger courtier who was also named Pausanias.

This created a storm of jealousy in the mind of the first Pausanias. He could not believe that the King had rejected him. In a fit of rage, he launched a smear campaign against his rival, whispering nasty stuff about the King’s new romantic interest to anyone who would listen.

This wouldn’t have mattered much, but the second Pausanias was a brave soldier, who could not bear such a scandal against his name. To prove his courage and manliness to the King and others, he deliberately pushed himself in the thick of a battle, only to end up dead.

Even this would have not caused any big issues, but incidentally, the second Pausanias (the one who sacrificed his life) was a friend of Attalus, one of the Philip’s best generals.

Attalus was an important part of Philip’s inner circle. And when he learned that his young friend Pausanias sacrificed his life because of the rumours spread by the first Pausanias, he devised a suitable punishment.

Attalus invited the first Pausanias to dinner and entertained the young man with food and drink. He made Pausanias drink so much undiluted wine that the young man passed out. He then proceeded to rape the unconscious Pausanias, invited all the other guests to do the same and finally, handed Pausanias to some mule drivers who gang-raped him in the stables.

When Pausanias came back to his senses, his life had turned upside down. He was now an object of ridicule. His entire respect had vanished into thin air.

He rushed to Philip demanding justice against Attalus. However, despite being disgusted by what Attalus did, Philip hesitated in taking any action.

Attalus was crucial to Philip’s ambitious plan to invade Persia. He also belonged to a powerful family that supported Philip. Punishing Attalus was bound to create trouble for Philip at a crucial juncture of his plans.

Somehow, he mollified Pausanias with promises of future justice. In return, he showered gifts on the young Pausanias and gave him a position of honour as one of his bodyguards.

But Pausanias was not mollified.

Though he seemingly went about his duties and tried to ignore the laughter behind his back, resentment boiled within him. He watched Attalus receiving the King’s favour and also being sent to Asia to lead the Persian invasion plans.

One day Pausanias got some inspiration from a Greek scholar Hermocrates, who told him that the surest way to achieve undying glory was to murder a famous man. This triggered Pausanias towards action.

Attalus was beyond his reach.

But Philip, his former lover and the unjust King who denied him justice, was close at hand. In his troubled mind, Philip was equally responsible for the things that had happened with him.

With this rationale, Pausanias took his revenge on Philip. Of course, the whole thing didn’t turn out that well for him either.

While he had hoped to safely escape after the assassination with the help of his three trusted friends, things turned out bad for him immediately.

As he ran towards the escape horse, his so-called friends betrayed him and lunged upon him with swords. When he tried to get away, his feet got tangled in a vine and he fell to the ground. Before he got a chance to utter a word, his pursuers came upon him and killed him.

His body was hung on a cross like that of a slave.

Conspiracy Theories about Philip’s Assassination

On face value, the assassination of Philip seems like a classic case of jealousy, but historians have also explored several conspiracy theories about the whole affair.

Primary suspicion for orchestrating the King’s assassination has fallen on Philip’s wife, Olympias.

Incidentally, Philip had become estranged from his wife and had divorced her a few years ago. At one point, Philip had even tried to remove Alexander as his heir, much to the ire of Olympias.

Needless to say, Olympias felt disgraced by this act of the King and had been seeking for some revenge on her husband. Some say that it was Olympias, who lent an ear to the endless cries of Pausanias. She even encouraged him towards the final act and even provided a horse for his escape.

Some historians also point that Alexander might be involved or had knowledge of the plot and still, did nothing to stop it. Philip abandoning Olympias and even removing him as the heir to the throne had left a bitterness in Alexander’s mind.

Whether anything of this sort is true or not is a matter of debate.

Ultimately, Philip was buried with all royal honours in a great tomb in Vergina.

Alexander the Great performed all the duties of a son before taking over the throne of Macedonia.

And thus began a new chapter in Greek history as Alexander carried on his father’s dream. The conquest of Persia.

The post Why was Philip of Macedon assassinated? first appeared on Saurabh Dashora.

How did Philip of Macedonia conquer Greece?

Everyone knows about Alexander the Great.

After all, it is not often that history produces men who dream of capturing the entire world and very nearly succeed in doing so.

But under the shadow of giants, many others are often forgotten, no matter how important their achievements may have been.

Philip of Macedon was one such figure.

While his claim to fame is being the father of Alexander, Philip was a genuinely effective leader in his own right.

Philip’s life began as a struggle for survival. Though he was the son of the King, he happened to be  the youngest and his elder brothers were simply not as competent. But through his remarkable wit and determination, Philip established Macedonian hegemony over the entirety of ancient Greece.

Ironically, though very few give him credit for this, but it was his long-sighted decisions that provided Alexander with the launchpad to go out there and conquer the world.

Greece in the 4th Century BC

In the aftermath of the brutal Peloponnesian Wars, the city-state of Sparta was able to impose its hegemony over much of Greece.

Yes, I’m talking about the same Sparta. The one from the movie 300.

[image error]

However, this state of affairs was detested by many of the Greek city-states. This led to the 8 year long Corinthian War and even though, Sparta still emerged dominant, it was more due to the timely Persian invasion and less because of Sparta’s own power.

The war exposed the fragile nature of Sparta’s control. And nothing invites the wrath of your enemies faster than an exposed weakness.

In the next decade, the Thebans from the central region of Greece revolted against Sparta and through a series of wars, they were able to essentially cripple Sparta’s power. This gave an opportunity for the Thebans to increase their influence over the entirety of Greece.

However, this did not lead to lasting peace. Resistance to the growing Theban influence led to more bloodshed until things came to a head in 362 BC, culminating in a devastating battle.

The Battle of Mantinea dragged almost every Greek city-state into the conflict on one side or the other.

Though, in general, Thebans prevailed but suffered heavy losses. The Theban King died in the battle. And though, each party in the war tried to claim some sort of victory (just like modern days), neither was better off in any way. Instead of establishing an order, the Battle of Mantinea plunged Greece into a state of greater disorder and confusion.

[image error]The gruesome battle of Mantinea

The years of fighting and struggle had left the entire country of Greece war-weary and devastated. A general peace was concluded between all the states. Thebans lost so much power that they basically retreated into a defensive posture after the war, thereby allowing Athens to become the dominant city-state in Greece.

The Situation of Macedonia

Though Macedon was in the north of Greece and was somewhat shielded from the battles in central Greece, its situation was even more precarious in the 4th century BC.

Ancient Macedonia was surrounded by more than just difficult mountains. The famous horse warriors of Thessaly to the South cut off Macedonia from the central regions of Greece. To the West, the powerful tribes of Illyria were a constant threat. From the Northern highlands, the Paeonians and Agrianians launched devastating raids whenever they wanted. To the East lay the savage land of Thrace where tattooed warriors regarded plundering as the only honorable means of living.

What a truly great neighbourhood?

In fact, Macedonia itself was divided into two vastly different areas. The mountains of South, West and North was the home of fiercely independent and traditional pastoralists. During the summer, these highland-dwelling Macedonians grazed their flocks in the mountain pastures. However, during the cold winter months, they were forced to bring their animals down to the coastal lowlands.

In the lowlands dwelled the Macedonian farmers, who raised crops and tended to their vineyards. The highland Macedonians had learned to live alongside their lowland cousins for some part of the year. However, it was often an uneasy truce.

It was in this absolutely uncomfortable situation that Philip came to the throne of Macedon. And also, it wasn’t a straightforward succession by any means.

When Philip’s father, King Amyntas died of old age, his eldest son Alexander II succeeded him, only to be murdered by his cousin Ptolemy. However, Ptolemy was also slain by Perdiccas III two years later. Perdiccas also died soon afterward while fighting the Illyrians, resulting in Philip becoming the King of Macedon.

It was an almost hopeless situation. Macedonia was in chaos with the nobility pitted against each other in a civil war, barbarians knocking at the doors on all sides and the powerful Athenians working tirelessly to weaken and dominate the beleaguered kingdom.

No one believed Philip had a chance of survival, let alone saving Macedonia.

Philip’s Early Years

Philip’s early years had not been easy. But they were essential for what lay ahead.

When he was only fifteen years of age, Philip had been sent as a hostage to the Greek city of Thebes by his brother, who was King at the time. This turned out to be a huge blessing in disguise for the young prince.

Not long before, Thebes had crushed Sparta’s finest warriors at the battle of Leuctra, ending the myth of Spartan invulnerability. The Macedonians immediately negotiated an alliance with Thebes and as per custom, sent hostages to guarantee their good intentions. If Macedonia did not behave prudently, Thebans were free to torture and kill the hostages.

The young prince Philip was one of the hostages.

Thus it was that Philip found himself in the household of the Theban general Pammenes. While the other Macedonian hostages feasted and chased local girls, Philip spent the entire time learning the latest techniques in warfare from the Theban generals.

He learnt that Thebans had perfected the art of hoplite warfare. Each hoplite was a proud citizen, who could afford to equip himself with a bronze helmet, a thick breastplate, greaves to protect the legs and an iron-tipped spear that was almost eight to ten feet long. This spear was not used for throwing but thrusting into the enemy ranks. In addition, each man also carried a razor-sharp iron sword and a heavy shield almost three feet wide on the left arm.

[image error]The Hoplites of Greece

Each hoplite was unshielded on his right side and hence, relied on the man next to him for protection. This encouraged a strong sense of unity and brotherhood in the battlefield.

When a line of hoplites advanced shoulder to shoulder against the enemy, it became a literal wall of death.

The Theban hoplites – common soldiers as well as wealthy cavalrymen were all bound by iron discipline.

This was in stark contrast to the state of the Macedonian army that consisted of a peasant infantry led by undisciplined nobles on horseback. The Macedonian knights considered themselves as the epitome of heroism and treated the infantrymen as cannon fodder.

Philip realized that these shortcomings made Macedonia weak when compared to other Greek states.

However, Philip was not a one-dimensional thinker. While he learned the tactics and discipline of the Theban army, he also took note of the democratic assembly at Thebes. He saw the weakness of a system in which every man could voice his opinion and cast vote on important issues, leading to endless debates, while politicians sought to destroy their opponents.

Pretty much like how it is in our current times!

Philip sensed a chance.

He deduced that in a crisis situation, an an old-fashioned monarchy like Macedonia could act much more decisively than a typical Greek city and be virtually unstoppable on the battlefield. If and only if it was ruled by the right King.

Philip returned to Macedonia when his brother Perdiccas slew Ptolemy and took over the throne. When Perdiccas marched off to fight the Illyrians a few years later, he assigned Philip as the regent.

A few weeks later, Perdiccas and his four thousand men lay dead in the battlefield and Macedonia was in dire straits.

The Illyrian King was ready to strike at the heartland of Macedonia. Paeonians on the Northern border had already started raiding deep into Macedonian territory. Five other nobles were also vying for the throne, thinking Philip to be a pushover. One of them was backed by the Thracians and the other by Athens. Each of Philip’s three half-brothers were also plotting to become King.

Philip moved swiftly. He quickly arrested and executed one brother, forced the other into exile. He then bribed the Thracians to murder their own candidate and also struck a deal with the Athenians to withdraw support for their candidate.

By the autumn of 359 BC, Philip had taken over as the King of Macedonia. But his troubles had only begun. There were many who wanted to dispose of the young ruler. And to make matters even more complicated, they had now realized that he was a clever man.

The Rise of Philip of Macedon

Philip knew that if Macedonia had to survive, he needed to build the army of his dreams. And for that to happen, discipline was the key.

To achieve his goals, he started training the soldiers in a rigorous program. Troops were drilled until they became adept at carrying out complex battlefield manoeuvres. Philip personally marched them countless miles over the mountains with heavy packs until they were ready to drop from exhaustion. To increase the morale, he also started bringing the officers of the army in-line.

During the cold winter months, Philip’s reforms started to bear fruit. Men and officers alike started to take pride in their newly found strength and abilities.

However, Philip was not oblivious to the fact that discipline would take them only so far against wild bloodthirsty barbarians or Greek hoplites. If he wanted to have a real chance at defeating the Illyrian hordes or the well-equipped army of the Theban Sacred Band, he needed something more.

He could not afford the heavy armor used by hoplites. Macedonia wasn’t exactly rich at that point of time. To bridge the gap, Philip decided to change the rules of engagement.

He decided that the troops of his newly-formed army would not wear any armor and carry only a small shield. This ensured that even the poorest young man from the Macedonian villages could qualify for military service. As a result, Macedonia managed to have the largest pool of soldiers when compared to any other Greek city.

But how could lightly armed peasants stand agains the fearsome hoplites?

The answer lay in a brilliant innovation by Philip himself. The sarissa.

Standard hoplite spears were eight to ten feet in length. The sarissa, on the other hand, was almost eighteen feet long.

[image error]The sarissas of Philip

This allowed the Macedonian infantry to march in a close formation with overlapping sarissas lowered in front of them. Wielding these sarissas, the Macedonian soldiers could skewer hoplites before the enemy spears could even reach close to them. The elimination of heavy armor and weapons ensured that Macedonian soldiers could use both hands to hold and thrust with their sarissas.

With practice, Macedonian soldiers started to drill with absolute perfection. Soon, they could turn together in any direction, open and close a line in an instant and charge the enemy with ferocious speed. Even though the sarissas were made to destroy hoplites, it was an equally effective weapon against other opponents such as the barbarian warriors.

Along with the infantry, Philip also reformed the cavalry. Unlike earlier times, the cavalry now worked closely with the infantry. The cavalry would now wait for the sarissas to open a wide enough gap for them to ride through and strike at the undefended rear.

To bolster his armies, Philip also created a highly trained engineer corps unit. Arguably, he was the first general in history to do so. In time, these men were able to span rivers, cut roads across mountains, and siege any city using new machines of war.

The first test of Philip’s new strategies came soon enough when he launched an attack on the Illyrians. Philip gambled everything in this battle and even though the Illyrian leader Bardylis offered a truce before the battle, Philip didn’t agree. He wanted to have this battle for a couple of reasons – to get rid of the constant Illyrian threat and second, to prove a point to his enemies.

Personally leading his infantry against the Illyrians, Philip achieved a splendid victory. Thousands of Illyrians were slaughtered and the rest surrendered. The Illyrian leader Bardylis sued for peace and agreed to withdraw from all the territories of Western Macedonia. In fact, he also offered Philip his daughter in marriage.

Philip agreed to the proposal. The victory cemented his position as the King of Macedon.

Philip’s Rule

The victory over the Illyrians gave Philip the boost he needed to establish hegemony over Greece.

He soon started expanding the boundaries of Macedon by capturing cities or forging alliances through a mix of bribery and marriages.

After marrying the daughter of the Illyrian leader, he also married Phila from the southern mountain region as part of his grand strategy to bind the highland tribes of Macedonia more closely. After Phila died, he married two women from Thessaly to strengthen relations with the kingdom on Macedonia’s southern border.

One of the reasons for these marriages, apart from building alliances, was also the objective to produce a male heir to the throne. As evident from the past, the Macedonian Kings were prone to getting killed in battle or assassinated by conspirators. A male heir was imperative to continue the rule into the next generation.

The second bride from Thessaly gave Philip a son in 357 BC. However, the boy turned out to be handicapped and unfit to inherit the throne.

Soon, Philip found his new wife.

The Kingdom of Epirus had suffered several raids from the Illyrians. To protect themselves, they sought an alliance with the rising Macedonian King. Philip also wanted to secure the trade routes between the Adriatic and Macedonia. Thus it was that the Head of the Royal House of Epirus married his youngest niece to Philip. This lady was none other than Olympias. The mother of Alexander the Great.

Though expanding influence through marriages may sound peaceful (you know the whole Make Love Not War thing), but marriage alliances wasn’t the only way Philip used to extend his control.

Philip’s rapid expansion of the Macedonian Kingdom was astonishing. And a lot of it was because of his army. Before Alexander was born, Philip had captured the old Athenian outpost of Amphipolis on the border of Thrace. This gave him access to the timber and natural resources available in the Strymon valley.

The same year Philip took over the Athenian fortress on Pydna on the Macedonian coast. The very next year, he struck eastwards, capturing the Thracian town of Crenides near Amphipolis. This resulted in the gold mines near the city falling into Philip’s hands. To make his point, Philip renamed the captured town after himself.

The revenue from the gold mines allowed him to enlarge his army and equip it with the finest equipment and horses. With these newly acquired resources, Philip laid siege to the city of Methone in 354 BC to drive out the Athenians the from Macedonian heartland. After a furious fight, Philip managed to take the town. However, he lost one of his eyes in this battle.

The physical setback did not stop him or slow him down. Philip soon took over the port city of Pagasae and continued with the invasion of the Chalcidice Peninsula in 349 BC.

The city of Olynthus in the peninsula was a key centre of commerce and under Athenian protection. However, when Philip marched against the city, the Athenian assembly could never agree on a concrete action. Soon, Philip’s armies surrounded the city, battered its walls and rained a storm of arrows on the defenders. When Philip took over, he sacked the city, destroying the buildings and sold the survivors into slavery. The goal of these brutal measures was to send a strong message to the Greeks.

Philip could be merciful. But if he was opposed, he could also be ruthless.

Philip’s big chance came in 348 BC when the Thebans called on Philip to join them and crush the Phocian rebels. Phocians were backed by Athens and even though, Philip was initially reluctant to take such a big risk, he finally marched for Thermopylae and forced the Theban allies of the Amphictyonic Council to take decisive action against the rebels.

Faced with the prospect of fighting the Macedonians, the Phocian rebels capitulated. Philip’s influence drastically increased and he was offered a seat on the council. Through a mixture of diplomacy and military threats, Philip of Macedon had become the dominant member of the most powerful political alliance in Greece.

By this time, Athens had realized that if something was not done to stop Philip, Macedonians would soon become the master of Greece. The Athenian statesman and orator Demosthenes had been warning for years that Macedon was their primary rival.

[image error]Demosthenes in the Athenian Council

On the other hand, Philip had also reached the limit of his patience with the Athenians and their constant conspiracies against him. He decided to crush Athens once and for all.

By seizing the Athenian grain fleet sailing from the Black Sea, he deprived Athens of its primary source of food. Before Athens could calculate what was happening, Philip marched his army and occupied a town near Thebes.

As expected, Demosthenes whipped up a war frenzy and instilled a false sense of bravado in Athenians that they could easily crush an upstart barbarian king. They formed an alliance with Thebes and finally, on a hot day in August of 338 BC, Athens and its allies (including the Sacred Band of Thebes) arrived at Philip’s camp near the village of Chaeronea.

As per estimates, there were around 60000 men in total across both the armies. However, while the Athenian army mostly comprised of shopkeepers and farmers, the Macedonians were professional soldiers who had spent several years fighting against hoplites and barbarians. Also, Alexander had grown old enough to assist his father and he had turned out to be a specially gifted warrior and strategist.

The outcome of the Battle of Chaeronea was easy to determine.

Athenians collapsed like a pack of cards. Along with their best generals, nearly a thousand Athenian soldiers were killed in the battle and double that amount was captured. The Sacred Band of Thebans provided some resistance but the Macedonians surrounded them, ultimately grinding them to their death.

[image error]Battle of Chaeronea

After such a decisive victory, Philip could have marched to Thebes and Athens. But he was gracious.

He sent an embassy to Athens under Alexander to seek for peace. His primary calculation was that Athens and its navy was more valuable to him intact. All Athenian prisoners of war were released and he also allowed Athenians to maintain their control over the Aegean islands. The only condition was that Athens should declare themselves as allies of Macedonia.

The Athenian assembly was ever so grateful at this proposal. They had expected worse. Needless to say, they granted Philip everything he wanted and also conferred Athenian citizenship on Philip and Alexander. They even went so far and erected a statue of Philip in the Athens marketplace.

The so-called barbarian upstart king was now virtually the master of Greece.

The Unfinished Dream

Philip wasted no time in consolidating his power further. Soon after victory, he called for a general assembly of all Greek cities in Corinth. In the aftermath of Chaeronea, no one dared to refuse him, except for the eternally belligerent Spartans.

In the council, Philip laid terms for future stability of Greece. He proposed that all Greek city states should live in peace with each other, defend each other in case of an outside attack and submit to the decisions of a central council. Lastly, they should form an alliance with Macedonia and uphold Philip and his descendants as leaders of a unified military force.

The League of Corinth as it was called seemed democratic in appearance. However, no one had any doubt that Philip was now the undisputed ruler of Greece.

And with this, Philip made the first momentous decision of the League. It was a bold plan he had nurtured for many years. The invasion of the Persian Empire.

No one in the League had the audacity to go against Philip. And thus it was that Philip was ultimately elected leader of the combined Greek and Macedonian crusade against the Persian Empire.

At last, Philip was able to take steps towards his dream.

Unfortunately, fate had other plans. Before Philip could embark upon the crusade for victory and glory, he was assassinated by a man named Pausanias of Orestis.

.stk-4dfe21a{margin-bottom:0px !important}.stk-4dfe21a-container{box-shadow:0 5px 30px -10px rgba(18,63,82,0.3) !important}[image error].stk-9cbdf58{margin-bottom:0px !important}Why was Philip of Macedon assassinated?

Philip of Macedon stood on the cusp of ruling the world. But his journey was stopped short when he was assassinated by man he knew quite well

Philip’s dream to conquer Persia lay hanging in the balance. Not until his son Alexander took up the mantle of King of Macedonia and achieved the goals his father had first dreamt of.

The Legacy of Philip

Philip’s achievements were eventually eclipsed by those of his son, Alexander the Great. This is the nature of history.

Though many may try to deny the fact, it is quite clear that Alexander’s achievements were founded on Philip’s work as King of Macedonia in turbulent times. Without those works, Alexander may not have found the success he eventually had.

The proof for this could even be found in Alexander’s behaviour. Many years later, when Alexander, in a drunken state, boasted of his accomplishments and belittled those of his father, one of Philip’s old generals rose and called the drunken king an ungrateful lout and proclaimed that Philip was a far greater man than Alexander could ever hope to be.

The reaction of Alexander was drastic. He personally drove a spear through the old general’s chest for his apparent insolence.

It was nothing but the frustration of a young King trying to rise above his father’s shadow.

The post How did Philip of Macedonia conquer Greece? first appeared on Saurabh Dashora.

Interview with Commander Moody a week prior to Samudram’s launch

Military Command Headquarters
4th November, 2071 AD

Me : Today I’m chatting with Commander Alistair Moody, the bad-ass military general in the Military Command and the appointed Commander of Starship Samudram. I hope to know what the Commander is feeling at this pivotal moment in the history of mankind.

Me (looking towards the opposite chair) : Hello Commander, I hope you don’t mind me getting late for the interview by two minutes. I was stuck in the horrible traffic just outside the HQ.

Commander Moody : Funny you should ask this question because just a few minutes back, I was lecturing my Officers on how a small delay can lead to so many things going wrong in the long run. And here you come along and talk pretty casually about being late.

Me : Uh oh! Apologies from my side. But can you please enlighten our readers about this delay thing being so high on your priority.

Commander Moody : Imagine crossing the sun during a solar flare where a margin of few seconds can make the difference between navigating safely or turning into a roasted pack of not-so-tasty human flesh. You won’t even get a chance of explaining why you got late.

Me : Er—but what’s that got to do with normal folks getting late here and there in their day to day lives. I mean—it’s not like we’re travelling near the sun or something like that.

Commander Moody : Civilians won’t understand what I mean, anyways. So what’s the point of elaborating?

Me (looking around sheepishly) : Um—is that why you and your son don’t gel up that much? I mean—he’s a civilian, after all.

Commander Moody : Jonathan Moody is none of your concern. Wait, is this even an interview? We’ve been talking for like 5 minutes now and there’s not a single question of intelligence you’ve asked me. If that’s what you are going to do, I don’t think I can continue.

Me : Sorry Commander—if you got offended. We didn’t start on the right note, I suppose.



Commander Moody (puffing like an angry tiger) : I hope so.

Me (clearing my throat) : Let’s try again, then. So, Commander—what do you feel right now considering that the launch of Samudram is just a week away?

Commander Moody : Well—to be honest, it’s a small step for mankind but a star-jumping, planet-hopping step for me (breathes slowly). Oh—I think I got it wrong. It’s the other way round. Star-jumping planet-hopping step for mankind. Oh, I guess I’m just feeling a bit odd right now, considering so many preparations are still left and these First Officers are getting on my nerves.

Me : Any particular problems, Commander?

Commander Moody : Actually, a lot. Mostly—with First Officer Algan Vento. He’s a nightmare to work with and Admiral Vikander is absolutely sure he should be on Samudram. Now, I can’t possibly go against the Admiral, can I? But on the downside, I’ve to deal with Vento, who’s a pain in all the wrong places. He’s not a space traveler. Period.

Me (rolling my eyes) : In that case, why is the Admiral so keen on appointing Mr Vento?

Commander Moody : Some favors between the two of them. Vento helped manage the Admiral’s secret affair with super-model Liara.

Me : Oh that’s news! I didn’t know Admiral Vikander had some secret affairs.

Commander Moody : He’s an old philanderer—Vikander. I’ve telling him to stay away from all this but he doesn’t listen. He likes his models and his habits.

Me : Any other things giving you a hard time, Commander before Samudram launches?

Commander Moody : Well—there’s this matter with the Inner Habitat. You know those places in starships where lowly worker-class folks are supposed to be stuffed. Thing is—it’s not big enough to stuff all the required lowly worker-class folks. So we might have to do a bit more of squeezing to pack in more people. I’m not a huge fan of that. But that’s regulation.

Me : Won’t it disturb the human conditions on the starship and lead to some sort of mutiny?

Commander Moody : It might. But then I hope Valdo Donovan, our security Officer, will sort things out. Actually, he loves situations like this to arise so that he can flex his soldier-like instincts even though he has been promoted to First Officer (laughs). What to say? Some folks should never be promoted.

Me (rolling my eyes) : Isn’t that a little too controversial for a Commander of your stature to say?

Commander Moody : It’s not like I care anymore. I am heading to Titan in a week in case you noticed. And with a plan to establish a permanent colony over there. The opinion of small time journalists like you doesn’t really bother me much (laughs like a maniac).

Me (mumbling) : And we always wonder why there’s so much conflict on these starships.

Commander Moody : What did you just say?

Me : Nothing, Commander. I think that’s all our readers would like to know today. I hope you’ve a wonderful journey ahead.

Commander Moody (getting up and ready to leave) : Thank you and good-bye!

Me (after Moody is out of earshot) : That was quite an interview. Or was it some sort of an argument. Never mind. I guess the Commander was in a lot of stress and does seem to be behaving erratically. Normally, however, he’s quite an affable person and I hope you won’t judge him by this interview.

Coming to think of it, I think you should definitely try and know more about him. And I’ve just got the right thing for you. Get a copy of Starship Samudram and check out how the Commander is in real action.

Commander Moody (from far away) : You are still here! Nosing around for some more gossip, I suppose!

I pack my bags and head for exit. In fact, I RUN.

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Free on Amazon Kindle – Starship Samudram

Hello Dear Reader,

My science fiction novel Starship Samudram would be available for FREE on Amazon Kindle for three days (17th March, 18th March, 19th March). You can find a short intro of the book below in case you haven’t been following my ramblings about Starship Samudram on this blog.

Earth is dying. Starship Samudram, carrying a crew of 1000 people, travels to Saturn’s largest moon, Titan. Their mission is to colonize it. But they are not aware of the secret hidden behind Titan’s thick atmosphere. Something lurks within the very elements of this enigmatic world and waits for their arrival.

What will happen when they land on Titan where methane rains instead of water and where the skies are dominated by the mighty presence of Saturn? Will they perish in the icy wastes of this strange world? Or will they be able to survive and unveil the mystery?

Interested? Well, maybe the description is a little too brief. But I’d love that you read the full book. There’s so much more in there than I can possibly put in a small blurb.

So, what are you waiting for? Don’t miss this opportunity and get your FREE copy today from Amazon. Just click on the below link and you’ll board the starship to Titan. It’s really that simple. Trust me!

https://www.amazon.com/dp/B01N2WVCX7

Also, you can also check it out at Goodreads on the below link:

https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/34209561-starship-samudram

The post Free on Amazon Kindle – Starship Samudram appeared first on Saurabh Dashora.

Difference between Writing and Rewriting

Writing and Rewriting are two of the most important activities you will do as a writer. But still, there’s often a lot of confusion between the two of them. Many think that writing and rewriting are interchangeable or that rewriting is for weak writers.

Unless you are one of the most talented writers out there, which is numerically quite improbable, you will have to write less and rewrite more. It’s inevitable because the majority of what we write the first time is garbage. Only when we rewrite the same stuff, things start to shine.

So, how should you approach a piece of writing?

Write like there’s no tomorrow

Trust me when I say this. Write as much as you can without worrying about the overall quality. Some writers even go into this stage without outlining though I tend to recommend outlining on a high level. But the point is to write as fast as you can. Basically, let it rip! Don’t try to write a literary masterpiece when you’re starting off with the first draft. Because, that will come much later and only if you’re really interested in writing a literary masterpiece.

This approach really helps you to overcome scary things like writer’s block. It helps you build perspective. And above all else, it lets you get your story from your brain onto the paper or a word-processor. Because, let’s face it. Brain can be a slippery storage medium and chances are high that the normal humdrum of life can lead to loss of ideas and thoughts. Getting stuff on the paper in the least amount of time can do wonders to your storytelling and build a strong baseline.

After you’ve finished writing, take a break. Don’t even look at your manuscript for a few days. Do something else. Maybe, plot another story or read some good books. Try to keep away from the draft.

Rewrite with careful thought

Now comes the tough part or the interesting part depending on how you look at it. Preferably, before starting this stage go through your first draft (of course, after the break!). Note down the good and the ugly parts of your manuscript. Make a list of things that work and those that don’t. Also, match what you’ve written with what you outlined. This will help you find out if your initial plans survived first contact with execution.

Post this starts the long but ultimately satisfying process of polishing your first draft into something truly remarkable. You would see the difference. I would advice to read with an open mind and don’t worry if your mind starts to wonder whether something doesn’t work well. That’s the whole point of this exercise. If you don’t end up changing a lot of stuff, I can bet that you didn’t read with an that much of an open mind.

Don’t worry if you see whole characters and sub-plots appearing pointless or weak. When I was rewriting Starship Samudram, I saw two-characters who just appeared in one scene but I had wasted paragraphs describing them. Time to get out the scissors and prune the weeds if you see such a thing. You’d also end up either cutting stuff or adding stuff depending on how detailed you were in the first draft and also the type of story. In my case, I found myself adding a lot of world-building only in the rewriting phase when I knew the story and the characters interactions better. The point is that it works either way and you’ll have a stronger story after rewriting.

I enjoy rewriting more because it helps me analyze my story, draw new conclusions, and embellish the sentences to make them shine. But, what do you think about it? Write and Rewrite your comments in the comments section below.

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Five Steps to Overcome Writer’s Block like a boss.

The above picture beautifully sums up what a writer’s block can do to a self-respecting writer. And trust me, it can happen to anyone. Even to the best of the best out there.

But, it is possible to overcome writer’s block just like any other problem. And that is what I intend to discuss in today’s post. So, here are five tips that can help you overcome writer’s block like a boss and finish that novel fast.

Start Outlining your Novel

I am saying this from personal experience. I suffered a lot from writer’s block at one point. The relics from that time still pop-up from time to time in the form of unfinished manuscripts. I started every project with the greatest level of commitment and passion. But someway down the line, everything used to fizzle out.

After much introspection, I realized that all this happened because I didn’t know how to proceed further in the story. Because, I didn’t think that far ahead. Simple solution to this observation was to outline as much as I can.

Outlining doesn’t mean you should know every little bit of information about what you are going to write. But, you should know the high-level beats of your novel. You also need to know where the story starts, where does it go in the middle, and where does it end.

The effect can be stupendous. With a clear direction, you’d realize that you can actually write faster and better. This is what I tried with Starship Samudram and was able to complete it successfully.

Figure out a writing routine

If you’re not doing it already, start setting up a routine today. It helps a lot. A writing routine establishes consistency and discipline. And whether you like it or not, these two things are the most important thing in a writer’s life.

The results would be instant. Because, when you set up yourself for a writing routine, you feel the urge within. Your subconscious prepares your mind to write, ripening your ideas and finding issues with your plot. I know it might sound rather magical but isn’t that what writing is? A kind of magic.

To make things better, you can try out different times of the day to find out what suits you the best. And then, try and settle for a writing session at that time of the day. Everyday.

Read more to write more

Even thought it might sound cliche, but I can’t stress this point any more. Reading is the food for writing. All good writing comes from excellent reading. I have found it to work for me and I’m sure it can work for any writer. Apart from finding inspiration, reading evokes a sense of urgency in your mind – the urgency to write.

Read more and the words shall flow out like a river. It’s that simple, really. Plus, it will also help you know what the competition out there is doing.

Carry a writer’s notebook

A writer’s mind is a complex machine. It works in strange ways. When you sit down to think or brainstorm about your novel, you might not get anything worthwhile. At other times, ideas pop-up when you least expect them to. They can come while driving, while listening to a random conversation, while having a dinner with your wife, and while sleeping. Yes, that’s what happened with me once when I woke up in the middle of the night and all of a sudden a great idea about one of my characters popped into the mind just like that.

Point is that for situations such as this, it is always good to keep a notebook handy where you can jot down the ideas or inspirations as I like to call them. It’s easy to forget such things in the normal humdrum of the day. But, it would certainly be a huge loss for your creativity and a hole for your precious ideas to go down the drain of oblivion. So, plug that hole fast!

Start writing something else

It might not be the most obvious route to follow, particularly for a writer trying their hand at their first novel. However, as you write more and read more, more ideas are bound to appear. And some of them would be brighter than the others and inspire you more. Keep these ideas documented in the notebook I talked about earlier. And if one idea is troubling you with its execution or flow, you can always give it a rest and start with one of the other ideas. Of course, don’t forget to come back to the previous idea because finishing a novel is more important than just leaving it mid-way.

This tactic helps you overcome story-fatigue, which can set in when you’re writing a particularly long story. You can alternate a big 100K-word epic with a seasoning of short stories that can only improve your writing and help in building a stronger body of work.

I’ve been trying this tactic for some time now and am certainly enjoying more.

So, what do you think about all the above points? Are there some other tactics that you’ve tried and they worked? If yes, don’t hesitate to put them in the comments section.

The post Five Steps to Overcome Writer’s Block like a boss. appeared first on Saurabh Dashora.

How to become a Space-Faring Civilization for Dummies?

And just to start, blasting off on a rocket doesn’t count, although it’s a great start.

I don’t think Earth is permanent. Well, technically, it’s a bit more permanent than most other things in life but it has to also go off some day. Just like that. Puff. Become part of the cosmic dust from where it came eons ago.

Thinking optimistically, even though the Earth might stay, there’s no guarantee that it will remain as this seemingly perfect abode for us—humans. Just look what happened to the dinosaurs at the peak of their civilization! Um, probably it was a little too violent a civilization, what with all the hunting, killing, and climate changes. Well, isn’t that scarily similar to how it is right now?

Enough of that! This isn’t a philosophical post. What I want to stress out is that whether we, humans, like it or not, we still need to think about an alternative place for continuing our civilization and like all grand endeavors require, we need to prepare ourselves for the long interstellar voyages that will be required. There are a few things we can do for that:

Find a way to stop ageing during those god-awful long journeys through the void of space that will be required to reach another habitable planet. Invent some hocus-pocus magical potion that stops the inevitable deterioration of body cells, or atleast slow it down to a manageable level. Because, I guess no one wants to wake up after several years of hyper-sleep to find themselves with all those pesky white hair and wrinkles.


Find out ways to grow vegetables, cereals, and everything that is tasty in low or zero-gravity environments. Food is absolutely important and out there in space voyages, we would need a lot of that. You see, there’s isn’t a McDonald’s around the corner.


Establish a proper chain of command to govern these voyages. I can’t stress this out enough. Look at the crime rate on Earth. Imagine how it will be a billion miles away from Earth where law and order would become tougher to implement. Hate to market it but if you want to get a glimpse of how bad it can turn out, read Starship Samudram .


Choose a proper expansion strategy for space exploration. International Space Station (ISS) is fine and all, but doesn’t serve much purpose if we are to keep our species alive and kicking in the face of a global catastrophe. We need to establish real self-sustainable colonies on places like Moon, Mars, or if we are a little high, we can look at Titan.

I’m sure there are many more things that will be required. And I’m really certain, the ones who are reading this would have their own thoughts swirling around in their heads about this topic. After all, we are all worried about the future of our species, aren’t we? So, why don’t you go ahead and put your thoughts down in the comments section and we can have a nice discussion on them?