Washington's Crossing

Pivotal Moments in American History

by David Hackett Fischer

Six months after the Declaration of Independence, the American Revolution was all but lost. A powerful British force had routed the Americans at New York, occupied three colonies, and advanced within sight of Philadelphia.

Yet, as David Hackett Fischer recounts in this riveting history, George Washington—and many other Americans—refused to let the Revolution die. On Christmas night, as a howling nor'easter struck the Delaware Valley, he led his men across the river and attacked the exhausted Hessian garrison at Trenton, killing or capturing nearly a thousand men. A second battle of Trenton followed within days. The Americans held off a counterattack by Lord Cornwallis's best troops, then were almost trapped by the British force. Under cover of night, Washington's men stole behind the enemy and struck them again, defeating a brigade at Princeton. The British were badly shaken. In twelve weeks of winter fighting, their army suffered severe damage, their hold on New Jersey was broken, and their strategy was ruined.

Fischer's richly textured narrative reveals the crucial role of contingency in these events. We see how the campaign unfolded in a sequence of difficult choices by many actors, from generals to civilians, on both sides. While British and German forces remained rigid and hierarchical, Americans evolved an open and flexible system that was fundamental to their success. The startling success of Washington and his compatriots not only saved the faltering American Revolution, but helped to give it new meaning.

Genres: History, Nonfiction, American History, American Revolution, Military History, War, American Revolutionary War

379 pages, Kindle Edition

First published December 1, 2003

About the author

David Hackett Fischer is University Professor of History Emeritus at Brandeis University and one of America’s most influential historians. His work spans cultural history, economics, and narrative nonfiction, with major titles including Albion’s Seed, The Great Wave, Paul Revere’s Ride, and the Pulitzer Prize-winning Washington’s Crossing. Educated at Princeton and Johns Hopkins, Fischer has combined scholarly depth with accessible storytelling throughout his career. His Champlain’s Dream further showcased his skill for biographical history, earning international recognition. Honored with the Pritzker Literature Award for Lifetime Achievement in Military Writing, he is celebrated for both his groundbreaking research and his dedication to teaching.

Reviews

[Matt · Rating 5 out of 5]

Despite a great love of history, I’ve never been able to really connect to the American Revolution as a historical event. The reason, I think, is that the Revolutionary War is our creation myth. Like other creation myths, such as the Christmas Story (the one with Jesus, not the BB gun), historical veracity and the exact sequence of events is not as important as the fact that event happened at all. Rigorous analysis takes a backseat to emotional considerations. Objectivity is shrouded in the mists of symbolism. In the end, the American Revolution becomes an article of faith.

As with any faith, there are icons, and the iconography of the American Revolution is as visible today as it was in the late 18th century. Walk into an elementary school classroom and you will likely see a copy of Charles Peale’s portrait of George Washington. Walk into a courthouse and you will likely see Archibald MacNeal Willard’s The Spirit of ’76. Walk into my closet and you will see a print of John Trumbull’s Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown that my wife will not let me hang on the wall. (This has led to several arguments in which she claims that marriage constitutes an implied contract not to display any Revolutionary iconography, and in which I call her a damned Tory).

Of course, the most famous icon of the Revolution, and indeed, one of the most famous images in American history (up there with Joe Rosenthal’s picture of the flag raising at Iwo Jima), is Emanuel Leutze’s painting Washington Crossing the Delaware. I have no hesitation in saying that you have seen this painting. Everyone has. Heck, if you were anything like me as a child, you probably, at one point or another, found a tricorn hat, put on a bathrobe, made a boat out of chairs and blankets, and attempted to replicate this scene.

Fittingly, David Hackett Fischer’s Washington’s Crossing, begins with a description of Leutze’s work: its creation, composition, symbolism and preservation. (You also learn that contrary to the contrarians, Washington probably did stand up in the boat, since the bottom of the boats were full of icy water). But Fischer’s book is about so much more than the crossing of the Delaware River and Washington’s subsequent victory over the Hessians at Trenton. It is, actually, the best book I’ve read on the Revolutionary War.

The first few chapters of Washington’s Crossing carefully set the stage for what is to follow, by describing and comparing the three different armies at the heart of this story: the British, the Americans, and the Hessians. Fischer makes a distinction between the armies of liberty (the Americans) and the armies of order (the British and the Germans); however, he doesn’t come to the facile conclusion that one would expect (liberty = yay!; order = boo!). Instead, with restraint and judgment, he shows the relative strengths and weaknesses of both. I was especially engaged by Fischer’s chapter on the Hessians, and his ability to humanize them. While some were conscripts, Fischer shows how many of these troops were proud of their service, and were rewarded relatively generously. (As an aside, is there anything quite as terrifying as a German? They are cold, disciplined, tireless and efficient; when they turn those traits towards warfare, watch out! And I say this as a person who had a great German friend in college. I loved him as a boy might love a robot).

Once Fischer has created this context, we begin the journey towards December 25, 1776. This road starts in New York, with the invasion of that city by Lord William Howe (of whom Fischer has many laudatory things to say) and his brother Admiral Richard Howe (a third Howe brother, George, was killed during the French and Indian War; American colonists commissioned a statue in his honor, which is still located at Westminster Abbey). Lord Howe’s army crushes George Washington’s poorly-arrayed troops at the Battle of Long Island, forcing Washington to save his army by retreating to Brooklyn Heights and ferrying his army across the East River (while the Delaware crossing on Christmas night is Washington’s most famous amphibious operation, he replicated the act on several occasions, to great effect).

The Battle of Long Island heralded the dark season of the American Revolution. New York City fell to the British, as did Fort Washington. Washington kept retreating and the British, under Cornwallis, kept pursuing. The British launched an invasion of New Jersey by scaling the Palisades and crossed the entire State, nipping at Washington’s heels. With winter coming on, the British and Hessians halted at Trenton.

At the moment of the Revolution’s nadir, Washington conceived a brilliant and risky plan to capture the Hessian garrison under Colonel Rall at Trenton. On Christmas night, with the help of John Glover’s Marblehead men, Washington’s troops crossed the Delaware River. The crossing, ironically, was the easy part (and in the book is covered in a couple pages). The troops then had to make a forced march through a raging storm to reach Trenton before the garrison was alerted. The Continentals, helped immensely by the skill of Henry Knox and his artillery, soundly whipped the Germans.

Fischer’s writing is a seamless integration of narrative and analysis. His style is as open and engaging as the best popular historians, such as David McCullough; however, unlike some popular historians, his scholarship and judgments are impeccable. This is the rare kind of book that is not only a pleasure to read, but is also written with an analytical eye. The drama of the story never overtakes Fischer’s reasoned judgment, and vice versa.

Fischer never fails to remember that history is a story about people: their decisions, their actions, their triumphs and their mistakes. In brief sketches, he manages to humanize the leading personalities. He tells us how the humane Lord Howe wanted to avoid war with the Colonists; how the fatherless Washington treated his aides as sons; and how Cornwallis, known to Americans as the loser at Yorktown, bucked the conventions of his class to marry for love. This is not history written as a chronology; this is history forged moment-by-moment by fallible, recognizable humans. Fischer does what he can to conjure the reality – the sights and sounds – of a long-ago battle:

The American infantry were aiming at the Hessian officers and brought down four Lossberger captains. Colonel Rall was in the thick of it. As another junior officer went down, Rall turned to console him. Then the colonel himself was hit and ‘reeled in the saddle,’ shot twice in the side; both wounds were mortal. The dying German commander was helped off his horse, carried into the church, and laid upon a bench.

In the center of Trenton, the battle became a bedlam of sound. The streets echoed with the thunder of artillery, the crash of iron on brick and stone, the noise of splinter wood and shattering glass, shouts and curses, and the cries of wounded men. On the vast scale of human slaughter this eighteenth-century battle was nothing to compare with other wars, but its very close combat of cold steel, massed musketry, and cannon at point-blank range created a scene of horror beyond imagining.

I did not come into this book completely ignorant of the Battle of Trenton, but I still learned a lot. For instance, until now, I did not know about the high number of rapes committed by British soldiers. Further, I learned that the Americans actually had a really good supply of artillery, weapons, and ammunition, though they were endemically short of food and blankets.

There is also the popular conception of the Germanys partying hard on Christmas, and thereby suffering from a massive hangover during the battle. In fact, the Hessians were quite sober. The reason they were tired, and caught unprepared, was that Colonel Rall had had them up on alert the preceding nights, due to raids by New Jersey militia (operating independent of the Continental Army, to unplanned effects). On the day of battle, Washington was greatly abetted by a winter storm, which lulled the exhausted Germans into a false sense of security. (I probably should’ve have known that the Germans, with their rigid sense of duty, wouldn’t have been drunk. Now, if they had been Irish troops…).

Fischer’s text is greatly enhanced by 19 detailed maps. This is a big deal in a book like this, at least to me. My spatial imagination is horrible, and if I don’t have a good map for reference, all subsequent descriptions of troop movements is a waste of ink. In other words, I have the geographical sense of Christopher Columbus. The maps in Fischer’s books, created by Jeffery Ward, are wonderful. They show roads, landmarks, and troop positions, while also including a modern-day overlay, so you know exactly where events are taking place. Despite all this information, the maps are easy to follow.

I also appreciated the fact that this book’s illustrations are interspersed throughout the text, rather than clumsily bunched into a center-section, like a publisher’s afterthought. Illustrations should serve a purpose. In Washington’s Crossing, when Fischer introduces a character, there will be a portrait of that character on the page. It’s such a simple thing, yet so few history books do it.

Washington’s Crossing does not end with the Battle of Trenton. It goes on to discuss, at length, the little-known Second Battle of Trenton, the Battle of Princeton, and the so-called Forage Wars, where small bands of Continentals, aided by New Jersey militia, annoyed and harassed the British army. It’s a testament to Fischer’s abilities as an author that this material, which might seem anticlimactic, is possibly more thrilling than the Battle of Trenton.

I was especially pleased with Fischer’s treatment of the Battle of Princeton, which I would venture to guess most Americans have not heard of (and which I have seen some historians qualify as a draw). Militarily speaking, George Washington usually garners the most credit simply for keeping his army together. He saw the Revolution as a “war of posts,” and at Long Island, he nearly met with catastrophe trying to lure the British into another Bunker Hill. At Princeton, though, you see boldness, panache and brilliance. Faced off with Cornwallis, Washington managed to disengage from the enemy, steal a march, and strike unexpectedly at the British base.

Fischer ends his book with a concluding chapter. Here, he helpfully reminds you of everything you were supposed to learn. This is a bit pedagogic, but never condescending. Fischer also includes a number of fascinating appendices that hold forth on various topics including the British, Hessian, and American order of battle; a weather almanac; a note on the ice floes in the Delaware; casualty lists for each army in each battle; a time and distance analysis on the American march to Trenton; a discussion about dubious historical documents; and a section entitled “Historiography,” where Fischer describes how the Battle of Trenton has been written and interpreted from 1776 to the present day. All in all, it is trove of facts, figures, and erudite analysis.

Today, the American Revolution exists in a haze of jingoism, self-congratulations, and firework smoke. There isn’t a lot of time spent parsing its meanings and complexities. I mean, if you take a second to dig a little deeper, beyond catchphrases and loaded words, things get a bit uncomfortable. For instance, those taxes levied “without representation” were meant to pay for Britain’s defense of the Colonies during the French and Indian War. Without British help, we might all be speaking French right now. Mon Dieu!

The Revolutionary Era’s prominence in our modern age is as a cudgel used to beat political opponents and score cheap political points. Indeed, there is a burgeoning party – the Tea Party – named after a famous protest that occurred in Boston Harbor. One of the Tea Party’s stalwart leaders, Minnesota’s Michelle Bachmann, self-confessedly joined the conservative party after reading a Gore Vidal novel that “slandered” the Founding Fathers. There is even a well-regarded legal theory that wants to derive the meaning of the Constitution based on the societal beliefs and norms of the day it was signed. (This works out very well for white males of the landed gentry; not so well for blacks, Indians, Jews, Catholics, renters, or women).

(I mention this not as a political commentary, but rather a critique on using historical antecedents to shape current political thought. Using history in this way inevitably distorts that history).

Clearly, the American Revolution now carries a bit of baggage. Thus, throughout Washington’s Crossing, I paid close attention to whether Fischer had a particular point of view or axe to grind. He does not. Fischer makes a conscious effort to be objective and accurate. This doesn’t mean finding some false equivalence, but rather in presenting the facts as they are known. The British were well-led and professional, yet some British troops raped and pillaged across the countryside. The Americans were brave and motivated by high ideals, yet they also kept slaves. (And no, I don’t think slavery is something that can be blithely dismissed as a minor character flaw, such as posting half-naked pictures of yourself on Craigslist, or casting a leering eye at the page boy).

I mentioned above that it is hard to connect to the American Revolution. It is a creation myth; it is a political sword; it predates photography; and it is captured in stylized paintings. Nothing about it has concrete reality. There is no stark Matthew Brady-like photo of the dead.

Fischer’s achievement is to scour the subject so that it becomes something real. The thing is, once you strip away the mythology, and discover what really happened, you end up more impressed than you were before.

[Michael Finocchiaro · Rating 5 out of 5]

Continuing my punctuated voyage down the road of Pulitzer-winning books, this one from Fischer published in 2004 was really good. Fischer does a great job explaining the dire situation of the Continental Army as they were obliged to leave New York and flee towards New Jersey. At one point, there was a real threat that the capital of the colonies, Philadelphia, would be taken as well. Without going too far down the road of sentimental nationalism too often, Fischer describes the courage of the "rabble" that Washington was able to form into a coherent fighting group and the against-all-odds victories at Trenton and Prince Town (now, Princeton). The descriptions of the actors in this historical drama are all quite interesting. I am reading 1776 by McCullough at the moment to see how he describes these same individuals and situations and found it wanting compared to this book by Fischer. It strikes me that it would be fascinating to read a version of this year from the English point of view...

My impression of George Washington is that among his most important qualities, he was confident enough in the men around him, even those that he did not like such as Lee, that he was able to learn from his mistakes and to listen to sage advice without feeling his ego over-shadowed. This is a rare quality even now in a leader, 250 years later. In Joseph Ellis' 2004 biography, His Excellency: George Washington (published the same year as this book coincidentally), we learn more about his life and the fact that, particularly after Newark, he could have easily become a dictator in the style of a Trujillo or a Stalin with absolutely no one able to oppose him. We as a Nation are so lucky that he took his model more from Cinninaticus than from Julius Caesar (or Nero for that matter). He was truly, despite his flaws, an exception leader and exactly the right person the US needed during that period.

Highly recommended for the way he reconstructs the battles and also the incredibly dense appendices where he gathers all the data on military strength and losses on both sides from the many fragmentary sources as well as a historical analysis on how the famous image of Washington Crossing the Delaware River has been perceived during history (worthy probably of its own standalone novel actually).

[Max · Rating 5 out of 5]

Washington’s Crossing is a real page turner. It is well researched and filled with detail yet never becomes tedious. An added bonus is the historiography at the end showing all the ways the same events have been interpreted over the years by historians and artists of different nations. For someone who is weary of constant references to American exceptionalism by the clearly unexceptional, Fischer’s genuine depiction of American revolutionary leaders who deserve the accolade is wonderfully refreshing. Standing out above the rest was George Washington.

Fischer depicts the American victories at Trenton and Princeton as a turning point in the war. The British had driven the Continental army out of New York. They along with their Hessian mercenaries occupied New Jersey in a display of overwhelming strength. Loyalists were emboldened and as the revolutionaries became disheartened, capitulation seemed possible. Instead the loyalists soon lost faith. Washington’s quick precision strikes at Trenton and Princeton showed the Americans could fight and the British could lose.

Cornwallis was forced to retreat settling into enclaves near New York as local militias supported by the Continental Army operated with guerilla tactics. While thoroughly professional, the British and Hessians were limited in imagination and flexibility due to their strict hierarchy. Their arrogance caused them to underestimate the fighting ability of their opposition making them vulnerable. Their troops were constantly harassed outside their bases and became dispirited as the death toll mounted. Support for the war in England suffered as its costs rose and the prospect of quick victory faded. General Howe exaggerated his wins and minimized his losses in his reports to Parliament. However, his requests for thousands of additional troops made many back in England realize they were not getting the straight story. All of these things make one instantly think of the Viet Nam War.

George Washington demonstrated remarkable leadership. He had the capacity to grow into the job and to learn from experience. His presence and his calmness under pressure enabled him to lead by example. His openness, the ability to draw out, to absorb new ideas and reach consensus made him highly effective. His brilliance was in his ability to recognize and adopt the best available ideas regardless of their origin. He was always mindful of public opinion. This coupled with his deep morality led him to minimize casualties and treat prisoners and loyalists humanely drawing a sharp distinction with the British and Hessians. Their widespread plundering turned the local population against them.

Washington adopted a mobile, flexible military strategy that looks thoroughly modern. He had a great sense of timing, of maintaining the initiative and keeping his opponents off balance. His tactic of concentrating his army on isolated elements of enemy positions was effective and well executed. Before the idea had a name he was clearly proficient in the use of force multipliers.

In this time when so many heroes seem tainted, here we have this highly credible account of the exploits of an American who deserves the title and our respect. George Washington was truly an exceptional leader and Fischer gives us an exceptionally vivid account. This is historical writing at its very best.

[Lisa (Harmonybites) · Rating 5 out of 5]

Less than two weeks ago I read David McCullough's 1776, a history of the first year of the Continental Army under George Washington, its mixed success in Boston and disaster in New York City and culminating--after a night crossing of the Delaware River--in their victory in the Battle of Trenton. It was an engaging, well-told story of such suffering and such blunders I left that book amazed the American Revolution, the army and cause survived to triumph. This book covers much of the same territory, with a particular focus on the crossing of the Delaware on Christmas of 1776, the ensuing Battle of Trenton and the Battle of Princeton less than a week later. The Editor's Note claims that: "No single day in history was more decisive for the creation of the United States than Christmas 1776. On that night a ragged army of 2,400 colonials crossed the ice-choked Delaware River from Pennsylvania to New York in the teeth of a nor'easter that lashed their boats and bodies with sleet and snow."

Given the overlap in material I thought this book was likely to suffer in comparison. That 1776 would likely make the stronger impression having been read first. McCullough is arguably the more engaging, more concise writer--but not only did Fischer have a different read, emphasis and details, but in the end Washington's Crossing is the stronger, more scholarly book, packed with notes, maps and illustrations. Although you'd have to enjoy not just history but military history. Fischer paints the crucial battles in a much more detailed way than McCullough did, not simply in terms of grand strategy but the more personal tragedies and individual casualties. And if McCullough's book arguably throws George Washington in sharper relief, Fischer is superb in depicting the various armies, their soldiers and officers. Fischer tells you of their training, their discipline, even about their drum calls. The British commanders, the brothers General and Admiral Howe, come across in a more complex, human way--the same is true of the Hessians and their officers. For one, Fischer explained that even in contemporary times, a British officer could say there was no British army--only a collection of "tribes" which is why the British army could never bring off a coup. You understand what that meant when Fischer details the very different customs and cultures of various regiments--the Scottish Highlanders going into battle in their kilts and determined not to let down their kin and clan fighting beside them. The Americans were varied as well. I had known blacks had served in the Revolutionary War--I hadn't known that in at least one Massachusetts regiment they served in integrated units--and that there were black officers, one of whom rose to the rank of colonel. The various folk ways of the different American regions, and the need to wield them together into a unified force that didn't conflict with the revolutionary ideals were a big part of the story.

I really liked 1776, and I'd recommend both books really. And probably 1776 with the more sweeping, less detailed overview is the one to read first. But if I were forced to choose only one book to read or keep on the bookshelf, it would be Washington's Crossing. I'd certainly be interested in reading more of Fischer in the future.

[Theo Logos · Rating 5 out of 5]

Washington's Crossing details the Winter Campaign of 1776-77 and it’s significance. It sets the stage, first with Washington’s assuming command of the Continental Army, then with its disastrous, nearly fatal defeat in New York, and its desperate retreat. Barely managing to keep his army intact in winter quarters, and fearing a killing blow from the British at any time, Washington conceived the campaign in an attempt to keep his army from dissolving. After achieving the improbable crossing of the Delaware, Washington and his troops found success in the Battles of Trenton and Princeton, then commenced a forage war, skirmishes that rage through the end of the winter.

This winter campaign with its small victories is sometimes remembered as more symbolic than strategic. (It was particularly useful in Tom Paine’s propaganda, The Crisis.) The author argues that it had an outsized, major impact on the war, both by destroying the Howe brother's strategy of ending the Revolution through conciliation, and through reviving the spirits of the Americans to fight on.

Fischer examines the make up of the Colonial army, with its wide sectional and cultural differences, and examines the daunting task Washington had in forging it into an effective fighting force capable of fighting the world's most professional and successful army. He goes into some detail describing the make up and culture of the British army and the Hessian forces that the Americans faced, giving a context to the challenge.

Washington emerges from these pages as a genius simply for being able to adapt to the situation at hand and create and lead what became the Continental Army.
Fischer is vividly descriptive in his portraits of Washington and his officers, the Howe brothers and their principle officers, and the commanders of the Hessian forces. In addition, he provides the perspectives of common soldiers from all the armies, private citizens, members of the Continental Congress, and Tom Paine, the Revolution's propagandist who was pivotal in the success of the winter campaign.

Washington's Crossing is rich in illustrations and contains adequate and readable maps. It has copious notes, an excellent bibliography, and several fascinating and useful appendices that add many additional layers of information to the text.

This book is simply one of the best, well-written, and fascinating books that I have read on the American Revolution. It has my highest recommendation.

[David Kenison · Rating 4 out of 5]

Almost everyone knows the famous painting of General Washington standing heroically in a shallow boat, surrounded by soldiers in a variety of garb including James Madison holding an American flag, crossing the ice-choked Delaware river. The painting, done by a German artist 75 years after the fact, is a pretty romanticized depiction of the event. But there's no debating the significance of what happened on that Christmas Day 1776. This book, which won the 2005 Pulitzer Prize for History, is a remarkable record of the events leading up to the crossing, the truth about the crossing itself, the rout of the Hessians in Trenton that followed, and the aftermath in the war for independence. He describes in great detail the British invasion of New York some months after the Declaration of Independence, and the dismal state of the American effort at that point. The impact of British and Hessian atrocities helped motivate the sluggish colonists; but Washington's character and leadership shine most brightly. I was newly fascinated by the vivid but very readable description of what Fischer believes to be the turning of the tide that led to American independence.

[Gary Hoggatt · Rating 5 out of 5]

I've been reading a lot of American Revolutionary history lately, and even so, David Hackett Fischer's 2003 volume Washington's Crossing, winner of the Pulitzer Prize for history, stands out as excellent. Much like David McCullough's fantastic 1776, Washington's Crossing focuses in on a narrow portion of the Revolutionary War and brings it to vivid life.

Washington's Crossing is devoted to an in-depth look at the New Jersey campaign of the winter of 1776-1777. However, Fischer doesn't just dump you into the icy Delaware River without some background. He starts off by examining each of the three armies involved, the American, British, and Hessian, looking at where they came from, how they viewed the Revolution, how they operated, and what their goals were. This section is extremely interesting, and did a lot to enhance my understandings of all sides.

The challenges Washington faced with Continental troops from all over the colonies and militia only vaguely under his command, the plans of British commanders Admiral and General Howe to pacify the countryside and aide the surely-numerous Loyalists in keeping the colonies under the King, and the economic and historical reasons Hessians became excellent mercenaries, and more - all of this was illuminating. Finally, Fischer gives an overview of the disastrous routing of the Continental Army during the New York campaign, which lead to the dire straights the Cause found itself in by November 1776.

Once he turns to the New Jersey campaign, Fischer breaks the action down into four main parts - the Battle of Trenton, the Battle of Assunpink Creek, the Battle of Princeton, and the Forage Wars. The Battle of Trenton, of course, is where the title of the book - and the famous painting - comes from, and was the initial shock that stunned the British and Hessians. Fischer does a great job of setting the scene for just how big a gamble this was for Washington. He also dispels the common myth about the Hessians being drunk on Christmas, as instead explaining how their openness to attack was a combination of fatigue from being on watch for days on end for militia who had been harassing them and an assumption that no one could be crazy enough to attack in the intense blizzard that, in fact, served the American purpose excellently by covering their approach.

My favorite part of the book, in fact, may be the part detailing the Battle of Assunpink Creek (also known as the Second Battle of Trenton). I hadn't even heard of this battle before. It was the British counterstrike after their loss at Trenton, and the Americans were forced into defending the indefensible city they had just taken from the Hessians days before. Through a combination of bravery from the men, ingenious generalship from Washington, and a willingness to fight the way that worked, instead of the way the British expected them to, the Americans not only won the battle, they were able to slip away from under the British's very noses in the middle of the night and make their way to Princeton, surprising the British once again with the American ability to show up where they weren't expected.

What followed was the Battle of Princeton, where the Americans ran into reinforcements headed to Trenton and defeated the British in a pitched battle on open field - a first. In less than two weeks, the Americans had run up several victories against the British, and rallied a Cause they seemed nearly dead only a month before. But they weren't done yet. The rest of the winter was consumed by the Forage War, in which the Americans - mostly militia - harassed the British in their winter quarters and while they attempted to supply their army from the countryside. By the spring of 1777, the British had gone from assuming the war was nearly over to, among some major leaders and many of the men, believing it could not be won.

Fischer covers all the bases in Washington's Crossing. He explains the motivations of the people and forces involved, he compellingly describes the battles with a novelist's flair, and he clearly lays out the effect the events of this book had on the Revolution as it continued. He really leaves no angle unexplored in this thorough effort, and is entertaining all the while.

One detail that aided the book greatly was the care given to the visual aspect of history. Maps of all the major encounters are plentiful, as are portraits of the major players, and they all appear in the text when the person is introduced, and not sequestered in a glossy break in the narrative midway though the pages of the book. This may not seem a big deal, but so many histories and biographies manage to mess it up that it's refreshing when it's handled well as it is in Washington's Crossing.

Finally, a comparison, since I mentioned it at the beginning, to David McCullough's 1776. There is certainly overlap between the two books. 1776 mainly covers between the Siege of Boston and the Battle of Princeton. It does so quite well, and is fantastic at covering the American side of the story. Washington's Crossing covers from the Battle of Long Island to the Forage Wars, and gives more attention to the British and Hessian side of the story than does 1776. Both are excellent and I recommend them to any fan of American history. If I had to pick one, it would probably be Washington's Crossing, by the narrowest of margins.

British General Lord Cornwallis, known to Americans as the loser at Yorktown in 1781, was also involved in the New Jersey campaign, and told Washington after Yorktown, "When the illustrious part that your Excellency has borne in this long and arduous contest becomes a matter of history, fame will gather your brightest laurels rather from the banks of the Delaware than from those of the Chesapeake." Cornwallis was right - as important as the later battles of the war were, Washington saved the Revolution with the Continental victories in the New Jersey campaign. Washington's Crossing will show you why.

I highly recommend David Hackett Fischer's Washington's Crossing to any fan of American or military history. Fishcer's work is compelling, thorough, well-researched, and most of all enjoyable. History fans will not be disappointed.

[Joseph Wilson · Rating 4 out of 5]

Imagine reading David McCullough’s 1776 and thinking “I could write it better.” The audacity. He did it, but still.

[Lewis Weinstein · Rating 4 out of 5]

An exciting description of one of the main reasons we are no longer part of the British Empire. Page-turning history.

[Sue · Rating 5 out of 5]

I was at Washington's Crossing State Park in NJ for a staff meeting, and we were treated to a musket firing demo by one of the historians on staff, dressed up in period appropriate clothing. He debunked some of the common misconceptions surrounding the crossing and the battle at Trenton, and suggested this book. I don't generally read history books, but that piqued my interest. I work in Trenton and have seen the annual reenactment of the crossing on Christmas Day a number of times. I've been to Monmouth Battlefield (where we were treated to an interesting lecture on how they used metal detectors to locate ordnance and from that determine the exact position of the various troops during that battle), and I've driven past the Princeton Battlefield often. I know that the region where I live and work is full of important Revolutionary War sites, but I only have a superficial knowledge of the events of the war.

This book did not disappoint. It explained the key details in a way that was easy to understand, and included a lot of quotes from letters, journals and news stories from the period. I enjoyed the older style of English and the varying levels of mastery over the language depending on the education level of the writer.

This book is not just about the crossing of the Delaware. It starts with a thorough description of the armies in play: the American rebels (including the army and the various independent militias), the British Regulars, and the hired Hessians. The commanders of each and other notable persons were described, including their leadership style and approach to the war.

It then goes into the events leading up to crossing, from the disastrous defeat at New York (in which Washington and the American forces seemed to be completely disorganized and unable to defend against the more professional and larger British and Hessian forces) to the retreat across New Jersey. This was a dark time for the rebellion and the cause looked almost lost. The American forces were in tatters and the British and Hessians were in positions of relative strength.

But things were building to turn the tide. The occupation of New Jersey (and New York) wasn't winning over the local population despite orders from on high because the armies had to "forage", which often meant pillaging and raping. Thomas Paine published The American Crisis, which reignited support for independence. Washington's army, mainly camped in Pennsylvania, received some much needed supplies.

There was concern that the British would make it to Philadelphia. The crossing itself was concocted as a way to stop this advance. Washington's plan involved 3 separate crossings late on Christmas Day under the cover of night: the one we know was successful, but also one at Trenton itself (to seize a bridge at the Assunpink and prevent the Hessians in Trenton from retreating to the south; and one farther south to engage enemy troops garrisoned in Burlington and Mt. Holly, preventing them from coming to the aid of Trenton. Those other crossings failed due to river conditions.

The book describes the difficulty of a night crossing in the middle of winter. To make things worse, a Nor'Easter developed just as this was taking place. While that made the crossing more dangerous, it served as cover and allowed Washington's army to get across the river and almost all the way to Trenton unnoticed. The storm was probably one of the biggest contributors to the success of the Americans.

The first and second battles of Trenton were described in detail (and I now want to explore some of the sites in Trenton that were critical in these battles). The book debunks the idea that the Hessians were partying on Christmas, leading to their defeat. The Hessians had been harried by the militia under the command of James Ewing, were ordered to sleep in their clothing and be on alert at all times, and were even warned that an attack was imminent. They were not drunk, but they were exhausted. They responded quickly to the advance of the American army but were overwhelmed and outwitted by superior tactics.

I knew very little about the Trenton battles and the Princeton battle, so it was interesting to learn that at the second battle of Trenton, American forces held Trenton against a larger army (the British response to the fall of Trenton was to send the bulk of their force at Princeton to retake Trenton) by carefully choosing their location - they held the high ground on the southern side of the Assunpink and made sure the few crossing points were well defended. They also had superior artillery. This was only for a day. Had they fought a second day, they may have lost. But Washington, after a council with the various other leaders, decided to withdraw under the cover of night, circumvent the British forces at Trenton, and strike directly at the relatively unguarded Princeton. They hoped to capture much of the British army's supplies, but they were spotted by a group of British soldiers who were on their way to reinforce the troops at Trenton. Orders were sent back to Princeton quickly to evacuate the stores to a safer location. Still, the battle at Princeton was another win. The British lost much of the ground they had gained early in the war. Public support for the rebellion was reignited, and the British were put on the defensive. After Princeton, the various militias were inspired to spend the rest of the winter months harrying the British and Hessian troops throughout New Jersey in a series of small opportunistic skirmishes. The enemy suffered many losses during these months.

This book also starts and even ends with a discussion of the various ideas of liberty held by the colonists, and how American ideals such as the policy of humanity in war were formed and how they continue to shape our approach even to this day. It ended on a positive note about American values and how revisionists have tried to make our past seem darker than it is. That may be true when you are talking about "We the people" as free white men, but when you look at the treatment of the natives, the slaves, women, etc., it's fair to point out the problems. That said, another interesting tidbit I learned is that African slaves did serve in the army (both sides), mostly under the promise of earning their freedom. I also learned that a reason the American troops were in tatters compared to the British and Hessians is that, at least in the beginning, women were discouraged from service. The British and Hessian camps had many women and children who cooked and kept the camps and clothing mended.

[Katy · Rating 4 out of 5]

Took longer than it should have to read this one.
Very good

[Joe · Rating 5 out of 5]

This book is so far, my personal favorite. I wasn't 10 pages into it when I realized I was really going to enjoy this book. David Fischer won the Pulitzer prize for History for it, and I can see why. The story unraveled like no other I have ever come across. Just like other reviewers have said, it should be required reading for anyone who is interested in learning about one of (if not thee) most important moment in American history.

This is a wonderful story... There is suspense, drama, impossible odds, and an underdog who is triumphant in the end as our hero. And it was all true. What else can you ask for?

[Teri · Rating 5 out of 5]

Washington's command of American forces in the American Revolution, specifically the crossing of the Delaware to fight in the battles at Trenton and Princeton, was pivotal to the victory of Independence. Historian David Hackett Fischer thoroughly analyzes the crossing and subsequent battles, situating them as the Revolution's cathartic moments. Fischer dispels the many myths surrounding the events of December 1776 through the spring of 1777 and scrutinizes conflicting resources and interpretations. Fischer is very methodical and organized in his narrative while using engaging prose to pull the reader into the world of the Revolution.

I appreciated the structure of the book. After his introduction, Fischer clearly describes the men who participated in these battles: the Rebels, the Regulars, and the Hessians. The author then details the plan of the campaign, followed by the details of the fall of New York, which led to the crossing of the Delaware and the battles at Trenton and Princeton. Fischer evaluates the role of the American forces and the British and Hessian regiments and how each battle affected the overall outcome of the war. The author utilized extensive primary resources, including letters from battle commanders, diary entries, and archival sources not previously used by historians in printed works.

Fischer's writing is enjoyable and humanizes these historical, larger-than-life figures. I felt like I understood the kind of man and commander Washington was, and I could understand why he was so well-regarded by fellow Americans. Washington proved to be a true leader.

[Dee Miller · Rating 5 out of 5]

Audible Plus 18 hous 9 min. Narrated by Nelson Runger (B)

Pulitzer Prize for history 2005
I learned more about Washington's development as a leader from this book than I did from the WASHINGTON: A LIFE by Ron Chernow. I am glad I read other reviews that encouraged me to try this book. Compelling writing.
Question for those who have read the hard copy.
There is a very interesting discussion between David Hackett Fischer and the audio book narrator Nelson Runger that lasts 28 minutes. They delve into surprises that Fischer met in his research for the book. Is this bonus material only available in the audio version?

[Martin Riexinger · Rating 5 out of 5]

Thinking about the criteria for a perfect historiographical work addressing both an academic and a broader audience, these three aspects came to my mind:
1. erudition
2. the ability to bring the events to life
3. the demonstration of the relevance of the topic for the course of history.
This monograph fulfils all three criteria.

Fischer shows how Washington reorganized the warfare of the Continental Army after the devastating defeat at New York in August 1776, leading to the crossing of the Delaware and the battle at Trenton in the last days of the same year. This victory paved the way for the advances through the rest of the winter and the final defeat of the British Army and its Hessian auxiliaries.
He shows that the lack of systematic training was compensated by commitment for a common cause and knowledge of local circumstances, an enabled the Continental Army to defeat their better trained opponents. This reflects the high educational standard and the wealth of the settlers in the colonies, perhaps the World's first middle class society. Hence these battles, not those of the French Revolutionary wars were the death bell of the military system of the ancien régime.
Fischer provides ample information on the leading figures involved in the events he deals with and describes the battles in great detail: Technical aspects, itineraries, topography and the fighting positions. And also in gruesome detail, as the warfare in winter took a high toll on the soldiers on both sides. Fischer does not spare the reader, the description of amputations and the low survival rates.
I also tagged this book as #germany-history-politics for two reasons. First, Fischer pays much attention to the background of the recruitment of soldiers from Kurhessen and some other minor German principalities. He stresses the role this deal played for the delegitimization of the ancien régime in Europe. Second, as might be expected Emmanuel Leutze's iconic painting "Washington Crossing the Delaware" was chosen as motive for the cover.* But the author actually starts the book with a discussion of this work by the "48er" from Schwäbisch Gmünd, who painted it after his return from the US to Germany as the vision of a future democratic world, not least by including an African-American on the boat.

The book has two long appendices, one dedicated to the data (regiments, commanders etc.) of the relevant battles, which I skipped, although acknowledge the importance for the military historian or military history nerd. As opposed on that I was very interested in the appendix on the reception history of the Delaware/ Trenton campaign. Fischer deals with academic and popular historiography, including German works on the Hessian troops, but also with pictorial representations. Remarkably the African-American figure was often retouched from reproductions.

* The first large scale version was destroyed in the Kunsthalle Bremen during British bombardment.

[Frank Stein · Rating 4 out of 5]

A rare and impressive example of a modern academic doing military history, and doing it well.

Yet clearly part of the reason Fischer wrote this book was to provide a kind of on-the-ground justification for his earlier work of social and cultural history, "Albion's Seed," where he discovered four major "folkways" in America which he thought descended from four separate waves of migration. Sure enough, he finds similar divisions here, such as that between the "ordered liberty" of the New England regiments and the "levelling liberty" of the Pennsylvania Associators. Whats surprising perhaps is how convincingly he makes his case, describing how the Pennsylvanians, for example, elected their own officers and forbid sartorial displays of differing rank. He furthermore extends his social analysis to those on the British side like the fiercely independent Highland Foot regiments (one of whom fought a bloody battle in its own right to keep its kilts and tartans back in Scotland) and the infamous Hessians, who were sent over to the US as part of the Handelsoldieten (solider trade) in what some at the time called "the deal of the century" for the Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, who received millions in gold for his troubles.

Fischer also demonstrates the world-historical consequences of these social and military confrontations along the Delaware river in late 1776 and early 1777. The defeat of the Hessians at the first battle of Trenton caused Europe, inspired especially by an anonymous pamphleteer who was probably Ben Franklin, to react against the mercenary trade and helped end it on the continent. On the other hand, Washington is portrayed as one of the first to understand how to create a new American order out of distinctive and differing visions of liberty, namely, through negotiation and tolerance. His command foreshadowed later government recognition of differences and compromise, yet kept the army united enough to achieve victory.

Overall though, the book is mainly a well-wrought military history, describing the lay of the land and dispositions of regiments and how they clashed in battle. I haven't read anything like it in awhile, but I'm certainly glad I read this one.

[Robert Snow · Rating 5 out of 5]

Some books you read and you say... That was a good and enjoyable. Now "Washington's Crossing" is very different, it changed my way of thinking about who we are, where we came from and about our hopes and dreams. This is a powerful book about some of our darkest days and we've had a few since. This is more than a history book it can be a teaching book also... If you want it to be! Enjoy...

[LAMONT D · Rating 5 out of 5]

The author's summary at the very end of the book is worth reading through the whole book as he details out the people, the events, the conditions, the thinking and the ultimate conclusions that can be made coming out of Washington's crossing of the Delaware and the subsequent victories at Trenton and Princeton. In today's world where so many debunk and water down and try to change the history of our great nation, Fischer does an excellent job laying out the circumstances and the research that supports why he thinks the war of Independence turned in the "rebels" favor and against the English. If you are a student of American history and a patriot this is a must read. The maps are a little hard to read but you do get the jest of the various battles and strategies employed and more importantly the thinking behind the leaders and military generals at that time.

[Sonny · Rating 5 out of 5]

David Hackett Fischer is the Earl Warren Professor of History at Brandeis University. His book Washington’s Crossing is a thoroughly engaging account of the events of 1776 and early 1777. The ragtag force assembled by the colonists was thoroughly whipped on Long Island and in New York. They proceeded to lose New Jersey and Rhode Island. Thousands of Americans began signing loyalty oaths to the English crown, and George Washington’s army was faced with constant shortages of manpower. The outlook was bleak; most Americans thought the war was lost. By December 1776, Washington realized that he needed to gain the initiative. On Christmas night, he and his army crossed the frozen Delaware River. They attacked Trenton, which was guarded by a force of Hessians, and managed to defeat the enemy before retreating back across the river. Then, early in the new year, Washington again stunned a combined force of British and Hessian soldiers at Trenton and then captured a British base at Princeton. Fischer argues that these battlefield successes revitalized the American cause. Militia groups began attacking British and Hessian units in New Jersey. It was the British army’s turn to be back on their heels. American morale soared, and many new recruits poured into Washngton’s army. More importantly, they began to believe that the war against the British was winnable.

[Michael Walther · Rating 4 out of 5]

This book begins with the defeat of Washington in New York during the American Revolution. Three thousand soldiers were captured, most of whom died on prison ships (more men died on these ships than in all the battles of the war). Washington was down to 5,000 troops, and that number would drop even further as enlistments expired. Support for the war was surging in England and waning in America.

On December 25, 1776 Washington succeeded in crossing the icy Delaware River undetected… An incredible accomplishment. He then defeated the Hessians at Trenton and took 900 prisoners. He beat back a counter attack by Cornwalis delivering a decisive blow to England. It was a turning point in the war.

Fischer begins by explaining the famous painting of Washington’s crossing by the German painter Emmanuel Leutze. Modern critics complain that the painting is completely unrealistic and idealized. While there are a few historical inaccuracies (the flag), Fischer points out that many facets of the painting are accurate based on hundreds of written accounts of the event. The crossing was truly an heroic event.

Compared to the Civil War or World War II, the Revolutionary War was much smaller in scale and size. But size is not necessarily a measure of significance. Leutze knew that the American Revolution was an earth shaking event. This was the first time a society was successfully established on the basis of freedom. This was also the first time a free people successfully ordered themselves and disciplined themselves to preserve their freedom. His painting reflects that especially in the diversity of soldiers that are in the boat with Washington.

Notes

“A people unused to restraint must be led. They will not be drove.” George Washington

Washington’s closest companion was a tall African slave by the name of William Lee. He wore an exotic turban and long riding coat. He and Washingtom were both superb riders. Before the war they hunted together. They were both fearless. Washington later emancipated him.

Washington customarily attended church on Sundays, even during the war.

Washington’s challenge was to lead a diverse and independent army against a highly disicplined and professional army.

Washington came from the “Northern Neck of Virginia.” He lived by a creed of moral striving through virtuous action and right conduct. He believed that powerful men had a duty to lead others in a virtuous way. His credo combined power with responsibility and liberty with discipline.

The only fear that Washington ever mentioned in his writings was the fear that his actions would reflect eternal dishonor upon him.

A vital aspect of leadership was courage - the courage to do what was right. Liberty was independence from involuntary passion. The worst slavery was to be in bondage to unbridled passion and not in full possession of the self.

“Liberty” for the men of the Northern Neck of Virginia, was determined by economic status. Economically independent men (land owners, etc.) had the most liberty. Slaves had the least.

Washington kept men of lower social rank at a distance. For Washington and his era, “condescension” was to treat men of lower rank with respect while maintaining a system of inequality.

He built one of the largest family fortunes with a net worth of more than a million dollars. His estate included many thousands of acres and three hundred slaves. After 1775 he spoke of slavery as an evil. He emancipated all his slaves in his will.

He was a major in the Virginia Militia at the age of 20. He gained a lot of experience during the French and Indian War. At 23 he was a colonel. He was a disciplinarian. “Discipline is the soul of an army.” His American troops did not respond well to this!

The New England soldiers were probably the most literate soldiers in the world. Almost all could read and write. They were very independent minded. They were all caught up in the poltical debates of the day. Washington needed to compromise with the New Englanders. He couldn’t force them to obey him, but they needed to understand that not everything was a town meeting.

American riflemen were highly skilled. It was not unusual for them to hit targets as small as the tip of a nose at 250 yards over and over again. British and Hessian officers lived in fear of the American riflemen.

The Culpepper Minute Men wore rough brown shirts, a bucktail on their hats, and a tomahawk or scalping knife in their belt. Their flag was the image of a timber rattler with the words “Don’t Tread on Me.” They were from the Blue Ridge Mountains of West Virginia. Many Virginians feared them as much as they feared Indians.

The Liberty Bell in Philadelphia was an iconic symbol of American freedom. It was inscribed with a verse from Leviticus, “Proclaim LIBERTY Throughout all the Land unto all the Inhabitants Thereof," (Leviticus 25.10). However, there were different ideas of liberty at that time among the American colonies. The Virginians believed in an economically stratified liberty. The West Virginians had a radical view of fierce individual independence.

The British Navy and Army were led by the Howe brothers, Richard and William. Richard was a quiet, methodical man. Of William, the author said, “Priviledge opened the doors of opportunity. Merit took him through them.” He was also quiet, like his brother. When the war was over, he returned to England wearing buckskin and and Indian moccasins. His relatives called him “The Savage.”

The thousands of American soldiers, each with their own personal weapons, loved to fire them at will - sometime injuring one another. This lack of discipline infuriated George Washington. “Constant firing in the camp, not withstanding general orders, is very scandalous! And seldom a day passes but some persons are shot by their friends.”

In many port cities like New York, twenty percent of women of childbearing age were prostitutes. Washington issued stern warnings against “lewd women.” But his troops in New York suffered and epidemic of veneral disease.

Field sanitation was a great problem for the Americans. One officer wrote that the troops were “easing themselves in the ditches of the fortifications, a practice that is disgraceful to the last degree!” They lacked experience and camp discipline and paid a terrible price for this with all sorts of gastro-instestinal diseases. One chaplain wrote, “Many were sick with dysentery and other putrid disorders.”

The British were surprised and irritated by the attitude of defeated and captured Americans. In their minds they were dishonored. But the Americans believed in their cause and that they would win in the end.

Captain Nathan Hale, a young Yale graduate, volunteered to spy against the British. He disguised himself as a Dutch schoolmaster and entered the British camp with great courage but little skill. He gave himself away. General Howe ordered a summary execution on September 24, 1776. Before his death he repeated a few lines from Addison’s Cato (a play that inspired the Americans): “How beautiful is death when earned by virtue. Who would not be that youth? What pity is it that we can die but once to serve our country.”

The Howes had more than half the British armed forces. One of their biggest problems was maintaining supply.

Thomas Paine published the essay, The American Crisis, on December 19, 1776. He insisted that it be sold for two cents to cover only printing costs. It spread rapidly. This essay helped re-inspire the Americans.

John Whitherspoon, aScottish Presbyterian pastor, was president of the College of New Jersey, later Princeton. He was a representative from New Jersey to the Continental Congress and the only signer of the Declaration of Independence who wore clerical bands. He closed the college in November 1776 and continued to support the revolution. The British made Nassau Hall at Princeton, their headquarters.

The Americans, British, and Hessians plundered. Fischer claims that the Hessians plundered on a much more severe scale. The Americans carried off what their hands could hold. The Hessians plundered by the wagon load. The Hessian women, who followed the army, were the most formidable plunderers of all.

British abuse of women was a serious problem. Howe denied it, but Fischer said there was evidence from junior officers that knew better. The people of New Jersey responded with sabotage and ambush.

As law and order collapsed, the civilians were at war with themselves.

Most people in the 18th century were unable to swim. This included the soldiers crossing the icy Delaware.

Washington’s password for the operation was “Victory or Defeat.” He personally wrote this on small slices of paper for all the units.

Washington often presented his ideas as someone else’s idea rather than his own. He felt that this invited more honest discussion and debate.

Rommel’s Law: Battles are won or lost by the quartermasters before the first shot is fired.

By 1777 more than half of Howe’s army of British regulars and Hessians (31,000) were either killed, captured or rendered ineffective (wounded or sick). Britain suffered from lack of troops for the rest of the war.

Washington was always listening, encouraging, guiding. He rarely demanded, commanded or coerced.

Since the founding of Jamestown, Americans have fought a major war in every generation, sixteen generations. But they always thought of fighting as an interruption in their lives. They did not fight for the sake of fighting, they fought to win.

William Howe complained that the Americans moved with much more celerity than the British. Both the British and the Hessians were too attached to their baggage. Americans could move their army at two miles per hour, no small accomplishment given bloody feet and muck choked roads.

[Erika · Rating 4 out of 5]

To study them (the men in the Crossing painting) is to study what GW meant when he said “These men must be led, they will not be drove” - George Washington

GW was of the belief that moral striving through virtuous action and right conduct by powerful men who believed it was their duty to lead men in a changing world

Liberty was defined differently by different groups of colonists. Liberty as reciprocal rights that belonged to all people was a PA Quaker idea; liberty as exclusive right of NE towns, hierarchical rights in VA, individual autonomy of back countrymen

Henry Shrapnel, British Gen, invented the shrapnel shell after his experience in the American war

In 1776, Adm Lord Howe introduced a new system of maneuvering fleets through flag hoists that allowed admirals to converse with their captains… a simple change introduced a new era of Command and Control

The Howe brothers thought of the war as a contest for opinion, not a hammering match

GW concluded the war should be defensive… avoid general action unless compelled by necessity…keep his army in being but as a retreating army, defending when it must and waiting for a brilliant stroke

Nathan Hale was ordered to summary execution without trial by Gen Howe on 9/24/76. Hale repeated a passage from Cato “ how beautiful is death when earned by virtue? Who would not be that youth? What a pity is it that we can die but once to serve our country?”

Baldwin Apple - Louwami Baldwin, MA country squire at Lexington/Concord

An indecisive mind is the lowest point that can befall an army

Thomas Payne joined the army in July 1776. In October he wrote his account after the NY surrender. The American army was the most literate in the world.

on Dec 31, 1776, Congress delegates power while affirming its authority to 3 men in Philly as a committee of an executive body - a step toward separation of powers

Howes wanted pacification to restore the empire. 12% of NJ signed loyalty to the crown, mostly the very rich and very poor, the middle class held their ground (Radicalism of the American Revolution)

No battle plan survives first contact with the enemy and actually most don’t survive first contact with one’s friends

Hessians underestimated their opponents. At Trenton they attacked America’s main force in the town.

GW, a southern gentleman of VA was learning to lead Yankee farmers as men of honor, entitled to equality as men of esteem…all are called Gentlemen as a moral condition rather than a social rank. Also a new idea of honor which was not defined by rank, status, or gender but by a principal of human decency and dignity.

General Cornwallis moved to defensive positions because he inferred the American attack on Trenton would be in the night as they did against the Hessians. He committed a common fallacy of military reasoning- he prepared to fight the last battle.

Rebels won the foraging war over the winter of 1776/7. Small raiding parties kept the British harassed and kept their horses from provisions.

Congress had civil supremacy over the army and established the practice that military men should direct military affairs subject to civil oversite. This was an improvised solution in 1776 and became a permanent part of American government and war. Separation of powers and rule of law

Victories at Trenton and Princeton added stability and legitimacy when needed most (winter crisis 1776/7) and helped a fragile invention grow into an American tradition

[Nathan · Rating 5 out of 5]

Excellent, engaging, interesting, and inspiring.
A few non-exhaustive notes:
• Washington: “A people unused to restraint must be led; they will not be drove.”
• Private Joseph Plumb Martin woke to the sight of 5 warships anchored in the East River near New York that were ready for battle. He remembered, “It was on a Sabbath morning, the day in which the British were always employed about their deviltry if possible.”
• Washington wept when he realized the disaster that befell his (2,800+) troops after he assented to the wishes of Gen. Nathaniel Greene to try to hold Fort Lee, in spite of his better judgment.
• Panics, in some cases, have their uses. In tough times, people begin to think anew. Paine’s An American Crisis captured the difficulty of the time and the resolve of the Americans.
• America’s great revival did not follow the battles of Trenton and Princeton; it preceded them and made those events possible, if not inevitable. The revival arose from many people, esp. the ordinary people in the valley of the Delaware (R.).
• Dr. Benjamin Rush thought that it was a national habit of the American people not to deal with a difficult problem until it was nearly impossible. “Our republics cannot exist long in prosperity. We require adversity, and appear to possess most of the republican spirit when most depressed.”
o For example, when Congress was forced to move from Philadelphia to Baltimore in humble circumstances, Samuel Adams noted that the circumstances improved the virtue of Congress and that Congress was able to accomplish more in 3 weeks than they had done in 6 months in Phil.a.
• During the winter campaigns of 1776-1777, there are many accounts of blood-tinged snow from the unshod or little-shod feet of the American troops. While the Americans had plenty of firearms, artillery, and ammunition, blankets and shoes were always in short supply during that difficult winter.
• During the battle of Trenton, James Monroe took over the head of a corps from an injured Capt. William Washington. In the melee, he was hit by a musket ball that severed an artery and he bled dangerously. Fortunately, a local New Jersey doctor who had joined Monroe’s Company as a volunteer the night before, saved his life by clamping the artery just in time to keep him from bleeding to death.
• Inhabitants, including at least one woman, shot from their homes in the battle of Trenton. One of the woman’s shots hit and mortally wounded a Hessian captain.
• After the Battle of Trenton, Washington ordered his men to treat the Hessians with humanity.
• A voluntary (private) drive was organized to help gather clothing and especially shoes for the Continental Army as an emergency measure.
• General Thomas Mifflin, who pledged his life and fortune to the American cause, persuaded his men to stay on in the cause of liberty for 6 weeks (and for $10) just before (and in the nick of time) their time of service was expiring. Most of them agreed to stay.
• Washington repeated this plea for troops to stay an extra month by appealing to their service to the cause of liberty and to their country, and to their sense of honor. Washington also addressed their material needs by authorizing $10 hard coin for those who agreed. Nearly all who were fit for duty (~200) agreed to stay on and serve. They knew the cost, and it was later determined that nearly half would be killed in the fighting or dead of disease soon after. A true sacrifice.
• Washington and his officers were keenly aware that the war was also a contest for popular opinion. While the esteem of others was somewhat important to some of the leaders, what was more important was their belief that they would win only if they deserved to win. Even in the most urgent times of the war, these men were concerned about the ethical questions in the Revolution.
• The American troops had a sense of their own strength, a confidence in one another, and a feeling that Providence was with them on the night of the Battle of Trenton.
• The weather proved to be a blessing from Providence many times during the War. One instance included the cold temps that came so quickly the night after the Battle of Trenton. As the Army proceeded to Princeton that night, the roads, which had been slushy and muddy the day before, froze within about 2 hours to provide for easier travel for the American troops.
• Some of the differences between Washington and the British generals include:
o Washington listened to his fellow officers and encouraged them to share their views freely.
o He listened more than he spoke.
o Later on, he worked more skillfully at the construction of consensus, as in a council.
o These skills resulted in a community of open discourse and a spirit of mutual forbearance.
o This also led to growing respect for Washington.
• Historian Gruuber (sp?) concluded that Trenton and Princeton were supremely important to destroy the illusion of British invincibility, making patriots of potential Loyalists, and spoiling the Howe brothers’ hopes to a quick end to the War and the start to a lasting reunion with the Crown.
• Americans became highly motivated by the cruel experience of oppression. Another strength was their religion—their faith sustained them in adversity. Another plus was that the free male population in America was among the most literate in the world. Also, the American economy generated higher income per capita than most European nations.
• Americans were also accustomed to govern themselves; by 1776, they had done so for 6 generations. In spite of the many failures, success came together in the winter of 1776. Why? A big reason was that the civil and military leaders were accountable to a free people through their representatives. Thus, military leaders spent much time to communicate with the people and their leaders.
• The victories at Trenton and Princeton added legitimacy and stability to the American Cause when most needed and helped the fragile invention that was America, grow into an American tradition.
• A new way of war-fighting was developed in America that reflected the nature of the citizenry. Free Americans in 1776 were a restless, striving, entrepreneurial people who routinely assumed risk for the sake of profit. They were a practical people who judged actions by results. Thus, they saw war differently than Europeans. They knew that wars may have to be fought from time to time to accomplish a particular purpose or goal. They fought not for the sake of fighting, but for the sake of winning. While war has been a continual part of America’s experience (at least one war fought each generation), Americans always saw war as an interruption in their lives and something that they wanted to get done quickly in order to return to the ordinary business of life.
• Some of the war-fighting differences were boldness and opportunism, initiative and tempo, speed and concentration, and intelligence. These differences came together in the winter battles of 1776-1777 and would define a new way of war that would continue to our time.
• During the winter campaigns of 1776-77, neither Washington nor his leaders denied quarter to the enemy, in spite of the fact that quarter was denied to many Americans by the British and Hessians.
• Note that 23% of the Hessians who fought in the War decided to remain in America after it ended.
• Thus, the Americans chose a policy of humanity that aligned the conduct of the War with the values of the Revolution. They set the standard high.
• Too many scholars in the late 20th century tried to make the American past into a record of crime and folly. Too many writers have told us that we are captors of our darker selves and helpless victims of our history. “It isn’t so, and never was.” The story of Washington’s Crossing tells us that Americans were (and are) capable of acting in a higher spirit.

[Dean · Rating 5 out of 5]

The first time I ever thought about Washington's crossing of the Delaware as an adult occurred in Fort Tryon Park (NYC) after visiting The Met Cloisters (great, underrated museum). I was sitting on a bench facing the Hudson River, reading, minding my own business, wearing a T-shirt gifted to me by my sister that read: "Wellesley College \\ Where no man has gone before". Those who have lived in New York can predict what happened next: A random stranger sat down on the bench next to me and just started talking.

This particular stranger had a rather strong Santa Claus presence to him - old, spherical, booming, spoke with an unintelligible North Pole accent, probably spent too much time with elves. No offense to any of my Greek readers here, but I believe he said he was from Athens.

He made his first inroad by saying that his relative went to Wellesley. After learning that I study physics, he enthusiastically claimed that he studied "astrognomie" (his spelling) at the University of Stockholm. He then launched into an hour-long seminar about how:

"Apollo pulls the Sun. You see the light through clouds? Apollo. Light from sky. See the clouds moving on this river? Hudson River. You know everyone thinks Washington crossed the Delaware river? Washington never did. He crossed Hudson. I know this. They teach you wrong. Apollo pulled the Sun so Washington could cross. No Delaware river. It's a myth! Apollo's pillar of light for Washington!"

I sat there through it all, wishing I could cross the Hudson to get away from this guy, maybe even make it past the Delaware. Instead, I had to wait for the sun to start setting for Apollo to pull his disciple away.

There are a few conclusions to draw from this story: 1) Don't talk to strangers. 2) Looks can be deceiving, so don't trust the Santa Claus types. They see you when you're sleeping, they know when you're awake. 3) Instead of getting history lessons from strangers, it is instead best to read some high quality history books, like this one.

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P.S. I have a friend who never shuts up about Trenton and Princeton (won't name any names, don't want to dox anyone). For their sake, I will include a quote from the book about Trenton: "This town consists of about one hundred houses, of which many are mean and little."

[Richard · Rating 5 out of 5]

David Hackett Fischer has produced a highly readable and fact-filled account of the important battles of the Revolutionary War following the Declaration of Independence. This conflict required a young, self-made country to draw soldiers from among its colonies to go against the strongest army of the time without the knowledge of how or when the outcome would play out. I think the heart of the American War of independence was the people of all classes who joined regiments and went to war under sometimes terrible physical conditions, for pay, food and clothing which was meager when available, which was not often. The glue which held this together was the aristocratic George Washington, whose prior military experience several decades earlier in the French and Indian War was far from stellar. How all of this came together and led to ultimate victory is the driving force of the historical study of this war.

This story begins in the summer of 1776, after the new American commander, Washington, had driven the British from Boston. The Colonists were able to use the terrain around that city to make it unbearable for the occupying British to remain there. New York was a different story. General Howe landed a powerful army of British regulars and German "Hessians" on Staten Island. Washington's strategy quickly changed from stopping the invasion to moving his gradually disintegrating army from one disastrous defensive position to another. Fischer provides clear maps showing the defeats and retreats from Long Island to Harlem Heights to Fort Washington by Washington's army after being tactically outmaneuvered by the British Navy and Army.

Washington's only "successes" during these months consisted of brilliantly executed and lucky withdrawals of his forces while on the verge of being enveloped by the enemy on several occasions. After his retreat across New Jersey to Trenton, and then across the Delaware River to Pennsylvania, Washington was able to stop running, but most of his army was killed, captured or had deserted by then. The remnants were due to end their enlistments at the end of the year. It was entirely possible, by the winter of 1776, that the Revolution would run out of steam.

Washington made a daring plan to turn his fortunes around. He crossed the Delaware River during the evening of Christmas to attack the Hessian regiment which had taken up winter quarters in Trenton. He put his 2,400 men in boats and crossed the river at night in a strong ice and snow storm. Fischer's descriptions and maps show how the Americans were able to maneuver into position to defeat a force of professional soldiers. Not content to withdraw with his prisoners back to Pennsylvania and sit out the winter, Washington kept his forces in Trenton to face the British relief army of General Cornwallis at Trenton. The Americans skillfully withdrew back along the route the British marched from Princeton, and fought successfully against the British there. Unlike the two next disastrous winters when the American Army would almost starve and freeze to death in encampments, the 1776-77 winter would be spent by the Americans in New Jersey, carrying on a "forage war" of attacks which effectively kept the British main forces tied up in New York City until the following spring.

Fischer writes a history which describes one of the great military reversals of all time. The casual reader can find a wealth of interesting information in an enjoyable read, while the historian and scholar will be impressed by the depth of research used in writing the book. Fischer always, though, is focused on the General who was able to keep his army going under all challenges, and the people who he led. The American Army at this time could contain a collection of types such as: Virginia gentlemen, New England seamen, Scot immigrants, western frontiersmen, Pennsylvania and New Jersey farmers. Some were attired in their civilian clothing as part of militia regiments; some wore the uniforms of state regiments. Some were black (it is interesting that the novelty of a racially integrated army starting in 1948 was actually preceded by the Revolutionary War).

I didn't make up the preceding description of American types fighting with Washington. The list is actually from Fischer's critique of the iconic painting of "Washington's Crossing the Delaware" by Emanuel Leutze. This American treasure in the Metropolitan Museum of Art was actually painted to inspire the 1848 European revolutionary movements by the artist, who had returned to Germany from America. It is interesting that the original 1850 painting remained in Germany and was destroyed by the bombing of Bremen in World War II; the famous painting in the Met is an exact Leutze copy of the original dated 1851.

Fischer ends his book with an examination of the historiography of the contribution Washington made to the Revolution through his victories at Trenton I and II and Princeton. I enjoyed reading his descriptions of the differing historical interpretations of these events by the Romantic Historians, Whigs, Nationalists, Debunkers, Multiculturalists and others. This section is a mini education on historical method. Fischer's position on the subject is that you can assign any motives you want to Washington and the Patriots, but the only fair conclusion of the cause they fought for is that they were trying to build a country according to the highest principles.

Two discoveries concerning the human condition were being put to the test here, not in academia but in a war for survival. The first was the principle that a society could be organized on the basis of liberty and freedom, and it could actually work. The other concerned the capacity of humans for order and discipline. These Enlightenment altruisms, not necessarily compatible with each other, were at work in 1776, when Washington had to lead an army of individualists who came from different colonies representing different sectional interests, many of whom joined up to preserve the idea of American independence from vasalege to the Mother Country. Nevertheless, these individualists needed to be trained to subvert their will and talents to the service of others, and to accept the military system of punishment and reward used to drill soldiers.

A last note on the importance of Leutz's painting. Fischer is aware of the debunkers who have trashed this painting because it contains numerous historical inaccuracies. Even the American flag dominating the center of the painting is incorrect, since it was not adopted until the following year. Fischer, however, chose to use the painting on his book cover because it is the greatest visual symbol of the spirit of the times. Leutz correctly portrays a boatload of soldiers facing great odds. The atmosphere of high drama and feelings of desperation portrayed here were no doubt clearly felt by the small force who just faced five months of disastrous defeats and now were operating with a sense of urgency to attempt one more, high-risk try to save a movement that they had devoted their lives to. America's greatest generation? It could very well be that.

[Barksdale Penick · Rating 5 out of 5]

The book makes a convincing case that the battles of Trenton and Princeton were the tipping point in the American Revolution. The Redcoats had swept into New York and routed the Americans, so the world, and all of the colonies, were surprised when Washington led his troops on a snowy Christmas Day and overwhelmed the Hessians at Trenton. I had long heard the Hessians were unprepared, but in fact they were fully ready and on high alert after days of American pressure--they simply didn't have enough troops to absorb the American assault. Washington comes off as a fine military leader. Apparently he made decisions with a group of advisors, while the British leaders made their own decisions and handed them down from on high. After the surprise at Trenton Washington precisely anticipated the British response-to march strait away from Princeton to Trenton where they met the entrenched Americans who could not be dislodged. And then Washington had them steal away at night to Princeton. Just great military leadership.

And while the British often slaughtered surrendering troops and maltreated prisoners, Washington gave explicit orders to treat prisoners well--he said they would go back (to England or Germany) and tell everyone back home about this new way of running a country. Just a great book, especially for a Jersey boy like myself who knows all the places they fought in New Jersey.

[Christopher Sturcke · Rating 4 out of 5]

Simply browsing the title, table of contents, and some reviews potential readers may fall into the trap of thinking that this book is too similar to David McCullough’s 1776 to justify reading it. However, this assumption isn’t correct. While both stories follow Washington’s army through the fall of New York and conclude with the battles of Trenton and Princeton, Fischer’s focus is different than McCullough’s. McCullough’s main focus was on Washington’s army throughout the entire year of 1776 starting with a detailed description of the Boston siege. Fischer only in minor detail discusses the very end of the siege of Boston in setting the stage for the showdown in New York. Fischer focuses more on the dark days of November/December 1776 precluding Trenton/Princeton and what Washington did to revitalize his fleeting army and keep the American cause alive. Following through on this focus, Fischer can be guilty at times of hero worship regarding Washington. It almost seems that Fischer chooses to throw more light on the flaws of the British to smooth out Washington's wrinkles.
Fischer begins with a somewhat thorough overview of the key characters who would play major parts in the campaign of 1776: the Americans, the British, and the Hessians. Fischer is less descriptive of the Battle for New York than McCullough. The heart of the story lies in the account of the activities that took place in New Jersey immediately preceding Washington’s Christmas Day attack and its aftermath. Instead of focusing solely on Washington and his army, Fischer chooses to focus more on British loss of control of New Jersey as the true reason for Washington’s triumph. Fischer focuses on the rupture, insubordination, and sheer misjudgment of the British and Hessian chains of command and how events ruined William Howe’s plans for the pacification of New Jersey. Howe’s plans for peace instead ended in violence.
In the aftermath of his fumbling loss of New York, Washington quickly learned from his mistakes was able to utilize intelligence to his advantage, monitoring the enemy while buying time, strengthening, reforming his army, and consolidating his command. When he saw opportunities present themselves he acted by first doing what he could to disrupt the enemy and put them on edge before his official attack. While recounting the facts of Washington’s crossing and the events that followed, Fischer (in his unique way) is quick to debunk many myths and legends that surround the events. For instance, factual accounts prove that the Hessians were not drunk and engaged in their holiday festivities that night but had actually been quite alert all day and engaged in their regular guard duties. However, these soldiers were completely fatigued, warn out from the raids and uprisings that had kept them vigilant night and day for several weeks in December. The reason they were surprised is because of their own misjudgment had let their guard down thinking it impossible that the Americans would attack in a blinding snow storm.

The book can be a bit of a slog at times. Fischer wrote this book as part of an Oxford Press series that he coedited with James McPherson entitled Pivotal Moments in American History. Maybe being part of a series that seems to have been written more for those less familiar with history might explain why this books seemed to me as quite pedestrian. It seems as though that was Fischer's goal. This clearly isn't his best work, but I would still recommend giving it a look. There is some good information especially on the events that occurred in New Jersey during the British occupation of the colony such as the New Jersey risings which I have not read about elsewhere. For that I give it three stars.

[Don · Rating 4 out of 5]

Washington’s Crossing is one of those tomes that every American citizen should read. It’s very well paced with an inclusive narrative that places the reader squarely in the action. This book is so well written, I found myself under the mistaken impression that Fischer had actually interviewed the participants and their first generation relations. I really enjoyed this book and highly recommend it. This is not only a good read for history buffs, it’s revealing of the subdural attitude, for better and worse, sets us apart globally.

It is fascinating to learn under what circumstances my country won it’s freedom from a largely egomaniacal oppressor. For instance, I had no idea that our military was completely made up of volunteers with no formal training. I had no idea that each soldier was under contract and once that contract ended, they were free to walk off the field. I had no idea that there were disparate units of militia acting on their own initiative and that a grand plan was very hard to execute.

At the beginning of the Revolutionary War we truly sucked. England was rich with personnel and superior in every military sense. They enlisted the help of German troupes under a very lucrative contract. Both England and the Germans hated what the American Revolution stood for; democracy. We were driven and beaten back from the shores of New York to Pennsylvania and the situation was desperate. What seems to have saved us from ourselves were unbelievably bad weather conditions and an active disengagement from the rules of war. What I find most ironic is that we’ve become what we fought; a great and powerful nation that forcefully protects it’s global interest through highly organized and regimented military superiority. It worries me to think about a resourceful enemy besting us at our erstwhile game.

As I read this book, it was wintertime, albeit mild and sporadic, in Chicago. During the winter war of 1776-1777, our troops were walking through blinding snowstorms, walking through icy rivers, barely clothed and in many instances unshod. During this particular Chicago winter, I ride a foldable bicycle about a mile and a half from the train station to work. On particularly snowy days, the conditions are unfavorable for biking on the small wheels that deem my ride “portable” and I am given to walking. During by snowy walks, I couldn’t help but proudly and thankfully reflect on the tenacity of our forefathers while protected by my London Fog down and Dr. Martens.

[Jason · Rating 5 out of 5]

Part of the Oxford Pivotal Moments in American History series, Fischer's work is a cultural history surrounding the events that Washington's Revolutionary Army participated in from March of 1776 to March of 1777, with the middle of the book focusing on the pivotal turning point of the unlikely capture of the Hessian garrison in Trenton, New Jersey on Christmas of 1776, made famous by the painting featured on the cover of the book.

Fischer's book was published at nearly the same time as McCullough's 1776, which covers nearly the indentical time period, yet unlike McCullough's focus on the narratives and characters of the of the dark days of the American cause in 1776, Fischer's work is a close examination of cultural trends and mores that developed and moved the American Army, unlike no other movement in the world at the time. In short, McCullough's book would be best enjoyed by those looking for a tree-top level of the events of the day. It is an excellent book that will be read for years, and Fischer is complementary of it, but Washington's Crossing is an in-depth look at why the American cause took the course it did and what precisely that means for us today. It is most certainly not history-as-pageant-on-parade. Most importantly, Washington's Crossing does a wonderful job of de-mythologizing the American cause to American readers, while reintroducing the concepts of rare and unique combinations of leadership and service that actors such as Washington, Knox, Monroe and down to the yeoman citizen-militia were in world history. Something new was happening along the banks of the Delaware that December, when it was most unlikely to.

[Brian Eshleman · Rating 4 out of 5]

I'm not surprised to find out from the interview with the author at the end of the book that he is a professor of more than forty years experience. His lectures must be spellbinding. He can keep the main narrative moving in a straight line that is easy to follow. He can do this while finding the appropriate timing to comment on the forces of the larger culture at work. Then, he can compound his effectiveness by entering into the hearts and minds of the individual actors, charting maturation or the increasing bitterness of individual figures and the ways in which this development of individual psyches impacted the main storyline. If keeping these three aims in tandem were not mastery enough, he then helps the reader to connect them to trends which continue to our present day, to the American way of war in the ensuing two centuries, for instance.

[Chris · Rating 4 out of 5]

In Washington's Crossing, Fischer covers the New Jersey Campaign of December 1776 through the spring of 1777.  He also explains the lead-up to th the battles in New Jersey and the Continental Army's disastrous actions during 1776 and how and why control of the war shifted from the British to the Americans during the few months of December '76 through April '77.   This enlightening analysis of the war helped me to understand some of the reasons why the Americans ended up victorious in the conflict.  To be sure, the Continental Army had more trials to face in the later years of the war, but these few months showed that they could face the British and win battles against this mighty foe. I highly recommend this book to Revolutionary War History buffs.