Fantastic intro. Had no idea of how problematic Anthropology as a discipline is, and this book is a great eye opener: without over simplifying it gives many threads to follow while functioning as an overview.
Spent a Sunday afternoon taking notes, I skipped the last part as it was less interesting to me. Sorry the formatting on GR is so terrible
My notes on Introducing Anthropology: A Graphic Guide
What is anthropology?
Founding fathers
Major trends in Western thought (p. 19)
Progressivism
Primitivism
Natural Law
German Idealism
'Indianology'
Derived minor trends
Rationalism
Positivism (as a label for Empiricism)
Marxism or dialectical materialism
Utilitarianism and Socialism
Structuralism
Nationalism
Imperialism
Theories of Evolutionism
Western thought has always imagined stages like the ages of gold, bronze, and iron → savagery, barbarism, civilization
Greeks: a schema of decadence
Moderns: a schema of progress
Integrating the biological and the social: Herbert Spencer
Universal Evolution Theory: evolution doesn't just apply to biological systems (as Darwin believed), but to all systems, including social, economic, and cultural ones → Evolution is a process that moves from the simple to the complex, from undifferentiated to differentiated forms.
Society as organism: society is similar to a living organism—it has functions, structures, interdependencies. But each individual/cell remains independent.
“Social Darwinism”:
He coined "survival of the fittest"
But not in an eugenic sense: Spencer was anti-interventionist, individualist, and optimistic about progress. His social Darwinism was liberal, with strong 19th-century overtones, more libertarian than authoritarian.
Natural law and morality:
Societies become more “just” and “harmonious” over time, following natural laws → a providential and optimistic view of history that Nietzsche despised.
Nietzsche (in On the Genealogy of Morals) associates Spencer with English moralists who reduce morality to social utility: “The English genealogists of morality, like Spencer, imagine that morality was born from social utility.”
Nietzsche detested Spencer’s scientific optimism, seeing it as a way to mask moral weakness and bourgeois conformity with biology.
Diffusionism
The idea that ideas, culture, and society spread through contact (e.g. the Tower of Babel). Culture does not develop independently in every place but diffuses from original centers to peripheral zones. Some authors believed in a single origin (e.g. Egypt, Mesopotamia): the theory of hyperdiffusionism.
It was an early reaction against classical evolutionism, which claimed all societies go through the same stages.
Now considered outdated because:
It underestimates cultural convergence: arriving at similar solutions in similar environments
It risks epistemic racism: assuming some cultures are superior and original creators
It fails to explain internal transformations within cultures
It’s historically impossible to prove the original point of an idea
But it paved the way for cultural globalization studies: it opened up the study of networks of exchange and inter-civilizational influence.
Field studies
They leave the armchair—but bring all their prior theories with them
Anthropology disciplines
Physical or biological anthropology:
In the 19th century: dividing humans into races and measuring skulls; studying the “primitive man” as a link between humans and animals (e.g. Broca, Lombroso)
Today: studies the biological evolution of humans using scientific methods (DNA, fossils, comparison with other primates)
Polygenesis theory: different races/species from different origins, often used to justify racism
Monogenesis theory: single origin — biblical (Adam and Eve) or Darwinian (common evolutionary ancestor)
Franz Boas (early 20th century): introduced cultural relativism, demonstrating that differences between human groups are cultural, not biological. This marks the beginning of modern, critical anthropology.
The linear model of evolution (from Homo habilis to Homo sapiens) has been replaced by a network model. Homo sapiens interbred with Neanderthals and Denisovans, leaving genetic traces. These are collateral lines — not ancestors, but species we shared the world (and the bed) with.
Sociobiology theory:
Originated in the 1970s–80s
Social behaviors have an evolutionary basis — seen as strategies to maximize reproductive success
Controversial because:
It tends to naturalize cultural/historical behavior (e.g. patriarchy, violence, religion)
It leans toward biological determinism
It can be used ideologically (sexist, racist, neoliberal)
Gene-centered theory:
Behavior determined by genes
Models early human behavior based on animal behavior
Focus on interbreeding and reproductive control in population dynamics
Archaeology: material culture, production tools, and technology
Anthropological linguistics:
Language as a core part of culture, not neutral
Language shapes identity, meaning, and worldview
Societies seen as communicative systems
Difference between society and culture:
Society = organized relations (institutions, roles, norms): how people live together
Culture = meanings and symbols that make those relations sensible: how people interpret living together
American cultural anthropology (aka ethnology):
Studies culture as a totality (language, rituals, food, norms, art)
Culture is primary; society is seen as its expression
Key figures: Franz Boas, Margaret Mead, Ruth Benedict
Method: empirical, ethnographic, descriptive
Idea: each group has an internally coherent culture; understanding requires relativism
British social anthropology:
Studies social relations and institutions (kinship, power, economy, gender)
Society is primary; culture is a tool it uses to reproduce itself
Focus on structure (roles, norms, institutions)
More theoretical; seeks general models of how society works
Key figures: Radcliffe-Brown, Evans-Pritchard, Malinowski
Ethnography and economy:
How people exploit environments via tech (ecological anthropology)
Economic anthropology: Mauss (1925) → the gift implies 3 duties: to give, to receive, to reciprocate
Formalist vs Substantivist debate:
Formalist: economics is a science, universal laws apply
Substantivist: economies are embedded in culture
Marxist anthropology:
Focuses on pre-capitalist societies via:
Modes of production: foraging, feudal, capitalist
Means of production: hunting, fishing, horticulture
Relations of production: how activities are socially organized
Sees social change as driven by contradiction
Multiple modes of production coexist and interact with capitalism
Reframes “the Other” in relation to colonialism
Kinship and social organization
Kinship is the study of how societies organize relations via family, descent, and marriage. A core field in British anthropology.
Household unit and forms of family: nuclear, compound, joint, extended
Marriage links: monogamy, polygamy, polyandry, ghost marriage, levirate (marrying a dead wife’s sister), woman marriage
Marriage contracts: bridewealth, dowry
Kinship theory:
Kinship is to anthropology what logic is to philosophy: the foundational system
Descent theory: vertical inheritance (status, goods, identity through bloodlines)
Alliance theory (Lévi-Strauss): society formed through horizontal exchange (marriage), not descent. "It’s not about who you descend from, but whom you marry."
Incest taboo is foundational: it creates the space for exchange and society
Kinship types: symbolic, classificatory, fictive (e.g. godparents, compadrazgo)
Descent systems: patrilineal, matrilineal, double descent, cognatic/bilateral
Marriage and residence rules; rights, duties, and responsibilities
Final note: anthropology doesn't impose a definition of kinship, but seeks to understand what kinship means to people in their own terms