The Myth of Multitasking: How "Doing It All" Gets Nothing Done

by Dave Crenshaw

In a compelling business fable, The Myth of Multitasking confronts a popular idea that has come to define our hectic, work-a-day world. This simple yet powerful book shows clearly why multitasking is, in fact, a lie that wastes time and costs money. Far from being efficient, multitasking actually damages productivity and relationships at work and at home.

Genres: Nonfiction, Business, Productivity, Self Help, Personal Development, Management, Psychology

144 pages, Kindle Edition

First published August 15, 2007

About the author

Dave Crenshaw develops productive leaders in Fortune 500 companies, universities, and organizations of every size. He has appeared in Time magazine, USA Today, FastCompany, and the BBC News. His courses on LinkedIn Learning have been viewed tens of millions of times. His five books have been published in eight languages, the most popular of which is The Myth of Multitasking, a time management bestseller. As an author, speaker, and online instructor, Dave has transformed the lives and careers of hundreds of thousands around the world.

For more information, visit
DaveCrenshaw.com

Reviews

[Zora · Rating 3 out of 5]

About ten pages of good info stretched into 138 tiny pages via the device of a fictional narrative in which a consultant explains the info to what would be, if she existed, the lowest IQ executive in the history of business.

Still, three stars for the idea and the brief citations of real science done on this. Summary can be stated in a Russian proverb quoted: if you chase two rabbits, you will not catch either one.

I had to pry it out of the hand of the library assistant, who said the head librarian needed to read it, in a tone that I read as "and I wouldn't mind hitting her on the head with it to help the message penetrate."

[Leslie · Rating 4 out of 5]

A brief book in a parable format. I have read in several books recently that multitasking isn't an efficient use of time. This book explained why and offered some tips on what to do instead. Lots to consider and trying to figure out how to apply this information in my setting.

[Tiffany · Rating 4 out of 5]

This is a fabulous book that everyone should read at least once. It takes an hour or two at the most.

It's written in story form (like "E-Myth" or "The One Minute Manager"). "Phil" is a business coach who is helping "Helen" regain control and organization in her business. He takes her through a series of exercises (included in the back of the book) to show how multitasking takes MORE time than focusing on one thing at a time, and that it damages productivity and-- worse--relationships. Then he gives her some exercises to help her out of her "multitasking".

The gist of the book is: there is no such thing as multitasking. Since our brain can only focus on one thing at a time, we either switch-task (switch our focus between two or more things rapidly) or background task (focus on one task while doing another that does not require focus--like talking on the phone while sweeping the floor). Background tasking is okay at appropriate times, but most of us fall prey to switch-tasking too often.

I'm a stay-at-home mom, and I still found this book very applicable. I sat down the same day I finished it and did some of the suggested exercises. I'm into my second week of living according to these ideas, and I can tell already that I get more done. Even better--I feel much more satisfied at the end of the day because I know all of my relationships have gotten the attention I intended for them to get.

[Chris · Rating 1 out of 5]

Negatives:
Overly simplistic. The dialogue was cheesy, canned and unrealistic. Writing the entire book as a conversation between the author and the most idiotic CEO ever just seems kind of like a lazy way to do it.

Positives:
Quick read, so you don't have to really invest much time in it. The distinction between multitasking (context switching) and background tasking is valuable distinction. There were a few good time management tips mixed in.

Normally when I read a book of this genre, I end up saying that it was entirely too long. When I saw this one, I was excited that it was shorter. Yeah, it was still too long. It could have easily been summed up in a single paragraph. My attempt below.

Multitasking is not humanly possible. When people think they are multitasking they are actually switchtasking (context switching), which is inefficient and rude. Try to limit switchtasking by being intentional with your time and availability. The end.

If you are a moronic fictional CEO who needs to have everything spelled out for you in excruciating detail, then you should read the full version. If not, my version will do.

[Avery · Rating 2 out of 5]

The book makes some solid points, and the story as a whole is a very easy read. But I have a pet peeve regarding books which are drawn out much more than needed. This book seems to be the poster child for being long winded. The author could’ve written a single chapter and still communicated the same amount of information. 2 stars for this guy!

[Matt · Rating 4 out of 5]

This is a very simple and straight forward book. It takes about one hour to read it, and it has the potential to vastly improve ones effectiveness, time management, and personal relationships. It confirmed to me what I've thought for a long time. There is no such thing as multitasking. You can only actively pay attention to one thing at a time.

For example: You can drive and also have a conversation with a passenger, but the driving doesn't take any active thought most of the time, it's a background task. Then when you try to merge into rush hour traffic or the car in front of you hits the brakes, suddenly driving becomes the active task and you stop hearing the passenger. A moment later you have ask your passenger "I'm sorry, what was that?"

You can either background task something which takes very little thought, or you can "switchtask" very quickly between two things that demand attention. Unfortunately, the more you switch , you more you have to play catch up because it takes a moment to pick up where you left off.

The example the book gives is simple. On one line write the sentence: "Multitasking is worse than a lie" Then below it write out the numbers from 1-27.

Okay, now do it again, but switch back and forth writing one letter on the top line, then one number on the bottom line till you've written all 27 numbers and letters, switching back and forth between each one. You'll be surprised how much longer it takes to do it switching between the two rather than completing one then the other. You'll also likely make a few mistakes when doing the two back and forth rather than one after the other.

Anyway - you get the point. And if you think I'm lying and that you work better getting text messages and e-mails all the time in the middle of your conversations then think about how many times you've read a message then had to ask the person in front of you to repeat themselves. It's like the book says:

“Multitasking: A polite way of telling someone you haven’t heard a word they’ve said.”

Here's a few more of my favorite quotes:

“The people we live with and work with on a daily basis deserve our full attention. When we give people segmented attention, piecemeal time, switching back and forth, the switching cost is higher than just the time involved. We end up damaging relationships.”

”Never commit to something without your calendar in hand.”

“Helping people understand the simple truth will help them change their behavior faster than simply trying to get them to change their behavior.”

[Maggie Delcamp · Rating 5 out of 5]

My manager told me about this book. I had never read a "business book," but I respect my managers thoughts and read it. Wow!

This book was a super fast read (less than 2 hours) but mind blowing. It is not just work/business minded. It is a life style change!

When I finished to book, I had real ways of makings change, and have seen a difference in my family time and relationships, and changed in my office. I'm not always catching up now and bouncing around.

I would put it on a top pick list for sure.

[Захарченко Віктор · Rating 5 out of 5]

Прекрасная книга, отлично иллюстрирующая видоизмененную мудрость: Есть ложь, большая ложь и многозадачность. Хорошо показан вред переключений. Стилистика бизнес-романа отлично дает полноценные кейсы - как бороться с проблемой: с позиции личного менеджмента и с позиций корпоративных правил. Настоятельно рекомендую ко всем, кто теряет на переключении между контекстами до трети своего времени.

[Dallas · Rating 5 out of 5]

Really eye-opening. I think I'll have to read it again to change some of my deeply-held misconceptions about multitasking.

[Mike · Rating 5 out of 5]

If you feel like there isn't enough hours in the day or you want to change what you spend your time doing I'd recommend this book.

[Hazem Jokhadar · Rating 4 out of 5]

Bluntly put, beautifully argued.

I am kind of relieved to have been exposed to the way this book looks at the concept of multitasking. It's been redefined by what I personally consider a more suiting term: Switchtasking. Although I still believe Pro-level multitaskers exist, Never have I ever mastered the art of multitasking the way some preach for it. However, this fresh look at the matter definitely brought more insight and hopefully real progress.

[Suwapatch · Rating 3 out of 5]

Read it for a confirmation bias.
If you've already known about these things, then there's nothing new for you here.

Still great to read it though. It's nice to have a reminder in these things once in a while.

[Brett · Rating 4 out of 5]

Straightforward read. Helps with mindfulness goals. Do one thing at a time.

[Douglas Mangum · Rating 4 out of 5]

This book was a quick read, mainly because the author is quite effective at communicating his main idea directly and concisely. He makes his point using a narrative, telling a story about a business management consultant and his experience coaching the busy CEO of a growing company. Most of the teaching principles come through the dialogues from these coaching sessions as the consultant gradually shows the CEO how we're all kidding ourselves that we really "multitask" well and that we're really fighting an inefficient battle against constant interruption and distraction. What we call multitasking is really "switchtasking"--turning our attention from one task to another and often trying to pick back up again with the first task. He demonstrates that the cost of switching comes in lost time and productivity. In one exercise, a task took twice as long because of the attempt to do two things at once instead of one at a time. I found the distinction made between switchtasking and "background-tasking" to be helpful as well. Background tasking is doing something that doesn't require active mental engagement (essentially the things we do on autopilot or out of habit) like watching TV and eating dinner or listening to music and driving. In our hectic multitasking oriented world, I think a lot of people are treating tasks that require active attention as though they were background tasks (like texting while driving--DRIVING IS THE FOCUS TASK NOT THE BACKGROUND TASK!). I recommend the book for anyone who feels like they just can't keep up with all their tasks. He gives strategies to deal with interruptions and find quality focus time to get things done.

[Naveed · Rating 3 out of 5]

I'll be honest... it took a lot of effort for me to mark this as three stars instead of two. Ultimately I noticed the book was published in 2008, which is why I provided the benefit of the doubt and bumped it up to three stars. The myth of multitasking is so well-known nowadays... perhaps I just stumbled upon this book ten years too late.

The book can be summarized by the title itself. Multitasking is a myth, and the author in incredible simplistic terms explains how the brain doesn't work this way. And then offers suggestions as to how to reposition one's career to a more single-tasking angle by adjusting the tendencies and habits of both ourselves as well as the people around us. Basically - find a way to single-task. Focus on one thing at a time.

The book is an incredibly short read written in a parable form of a consultant meeting with his client, the CEO and founder of a small company. There are two things of value I've found in the book, and only two. First is, as explained, our human brains don't process things in this manner. And if you are still wondering if so.. Crenshaw provides a simple testing method, where he asks the reader to write out the letters in the sentence "Multitasking is worse than a lie," followed by then numbering the letters one through thirty-two. Then, he asks you to intersperse the two activities, then finding the time it takes is much greater. The second is a few worksheets thrown into the back which may, at minimum, provide an opportunity for more deliberate attempts at true uninterrupted focus.

Truthfully the time it took to write my review really wasn't worth it for this book.

[Jer · Rating 3 out of 5]

My first impression was "This is all common sense." feeling. However, if that was the case, why do ALL of us allow fall into the trap of thinking that working on more than one thing, at a time, is productive?

Crenshaw reminds us that "multitasking" (which he says is really "multiswitching") is the biggest lie.

When was the last time you gave someone your undivided attention for more than 2 minutes? Do your coworkers tend to linger at your desk, thinking of another question, before leaving?

The book is written as a little story, where a consultant is visiting an overburdened company owner. How fitting.

Overall I liked the book. It was simple, but it was also a quick read that made it's point in under 150 pages. Was it worth the $20 I paid for the little hardcover? Hmm... well, if you consider that time is money and if you learn one little tidbit in here, it could have exponential effects. but it IS $20, so a library copy should work just fine.

[Jay · Rating 4 out of 5]

This short book makes a compelling case that multitasking doesn't exist at all and that what what we are really doing is inefficient switch tasking. The book offers hard numbers on the cost of switch tasking woven into a simple story.

The author argues that neither computers nor people do multiple things at once. While it is possible to have something going on in the background without serious cost, of you switch back and forth between tasks, the cost of switching can be very high.

The book distinguishes between active switching (which you do yourself) and passive switches (triggered by events or other people). It also offers a few thoughts on how to change an organizational culture to address the problem.

If you are already convinced that multitasking us a myth, this book can provide statistics to share with those who don't share your view. If you believe you cam multitask effectively, the book is likely to demonstrate the fallacy of your thinking.

[Todd · Rating 4 out of 5]

i didn't even plan on reading this little book, i found it on my table and was curious about some self help bogus book and wondered who would waste time reading something like this. It takes about 1.5 hours to read from start to finish and i thought it was pretty interesting in the end.

here is one of the funner exercises from the book.

Multitasking is worse than a lie

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 23 24 25 26 27


in the first approach try writing each character in the sentence above as you count the numbers below and time yourself as you do it.....

the layout would be the same as above but your hand would be writing on separate lines, "M1U2L3....", you just have to shift between the top sentence and the lower numbers...at the same time

what's your time?

in the next attempt, write out the entire sentence and immediately count from 1 to 27 below.

what's your time?

most people are surprised by the time difference.

[Laura Bergells · Rating 5 out of 5]

I read the Myth of Multitasking while I sous vide a turkey breast on a snowy day. So was I multitasking?

No! I was background tasking!

That’s one takeaway from the book. You’ll learn the distinction between multitasking, switchtasking, and background tasking. And while you’re learning some of these technical differences, you’ll also discover how to manage your calendar and increase your productivity.

While the turkey simmered, I put my feet up and read this enjoyable little business story in about an hour. Short and sweet, the book covers valuable productivity principles. It shares eye-opening insights on how to enjoy richer relationships and a more relaxed life, as well.

Best of all, it does so in story form. The author leads you through a client/ consultant relationship. Since the best teachers show more than tell, this approach is both effective and engaging.

A great little book, and a terrific way to spend my time on a snowy afternoon.

[Bismarck Public Library]

I picked up "The Myth of Multitasking" because it looked interesting and I needed a quick read. Little did I know that I would learn so much and that it would pertain so directly to me.

The author explains how it isn't possible for humans to do two things at once. It may look like two things are being done at once, but we can really only concentrate on one thing.

What most people do is switch between multiple tasks. This wastes time and we don't do as good of a job as if we would just concentrate on one thing at a time.

If you're like me and feel like you're always doing ten things at a time, read this book!!

CLICK HERE to find "The Myth of Multitasking" in Bismarck Public Library's online catalog.

[Catherine Gillespie · Rating 3 out of 5]

The Myth of Multitasking: How “Doing It All” Gets Nothing Done is a must-read if you’re one of those people who still thinks that multitasking is good or useful. Even if you know multitasking isn’t efficient, it can still be a temptation to engage in it, especially with the ability to have devices on and multiple windows open all the time.

The Myth of Multitasking, which takes the form of a dialog between a productivity coach and a CEO (that might annoy some people, but it’s a fast read so you might be able to get past the gimmick of the framework), points out that multitasking is actually impossible, even for computers. If you’re not convinced, check the book out from the library and try the diagnostic. It will change your mind, I guarantee.

{Read my full review here}

[Serhii Ivanov · Rating 5 out of 5]

Книга помогает поставить мозги на место и понять, что многозадачность — миф. Рекомендую! Дальше не читай, потому что там спойлер :)

То, что мы называем многозадачностью, не что иное, как быстрое переключение между задачами. 5 секунд ты смотришь фильм, 5 секунд жуёшь попкорн, 5 секунд говоришь с женой — в итоге ты ни одно из трёх дел не сделал.

После переключения с одной задачи на другую, ты ещё теряешь время, чтобы вспомнить на каком месте ты закончил задачу и что надо делать дальше.

Главное — сократить до минимума количество факторов, которые заставляют отвлекаться и делать одно дело до конца, а потом переходить к следующему. Всё остальное прочитаешь сам в книге :)

[Jonathan Gascho · Rating 3 out of 5]

Kind of offended that there are little textboxes in the margins. Because in order to read them, what do you have to do? Switch tasks! I started ignoring them to prove in a way that I had received the message. I think this is part of the reason I always had so much trouble with textbooks. So many separate stop/start objects - on the larger real estate - completely ruins your focus.

Solid message delivered in a cheesy but concise Wealthy Barber manner.

[Scott · Rating 5 out of 5]

A quick, easy, but eye opening book that really sheds light on the fact that everyone I know (including myself) has the attention span of a gnat. We have forgotten how to listen and engage one with another. Even though I find it kinda cheezy that the writer writes in this "conversation" format, I think he is very effective in getting the point across.

[Roxy · Rating 4 out of 5]

This is a fast read... I began and finished it while in a plane, waiting for take-off. It's powerful, with specific examples of how to manage your time better. Using a case study, the author brings home the lessons that I really related to.

[Raph Kazidule · Rating 4 out of 5]

A compelling way to show how what we think is efficient to be inefficient.

[Marshall · Rating 4 out of 5]

Short, simplistic, but invaluable lesson to be learned.

[Arbaaz Allybux · Rating 4 out of 5]

Dave Crenshaw’s The Myth of Multitasking is a sharp, practical guide that flips the popular belief that multitasking makes us more productive. Through a clever blend of storytelling and coaching dialogue, Crenshaw introduces us to a fictional business owner, Helen, who believes he’s multitasking his way to success. But when a time-management coach (representing Crenshaw himself) steps in, it becomes clear that Helen's productivity is actually suffering due to what the author calls “switchtasking.”


Key Concepts and Lessons
Crenshaw argues that true multitasking doesn’t exist—we’re not doing multiple things at once, we’re switching back and forth, and that comes at a huge cost to both time and quality. He distinguishes between two types of multitasking:

-Switchtasking: Jumping between tasks that require active attention (e.g. answering emails while in a meeting).
-Background tasking: Doing an automatic task (e.g. walking) while doing something that requires focus (e.g. talking on the phone).

Through examples and guided coaching, Helen begins to see that by attempting to juggle multiple tasks—like replying to emails while on the phone—she's actually creating more work, making more mistakes, and damaging relationships with both clients and staff.

The coach guides Helen to identify how much time is lost during task switching and stresses the importance of focusing on one thing at a time. One key exercise involves writing the alphabet and numbers simultaneously vs. separately, showing how focus always wins.

Crenshaw also highlights the emotional costs of multitasking, such as:

-Increased stress
-Frustrated communication
-Shallow relationships

The Turnaround
As Helen applies these lessons, herbusiness begins to improve. She implements “focus sessions” for deep work, creates boundaries around communication (like batching emails or setting call hours), and models single-tasking for her team. The story ends with Helen feeling less stressed, more in control, and—most importantly—actually getting things done. The coach also teaches the managers within the company to also implement these changes.

My Review
I loved this book. It’s short, punchy, and incredibly actionable. The narrative format made it easy to follow, and the takeaways hit home hard. I found myself nodding along as I realised just how much time and focus I’ve lost to “multitasking.”

The concept of switchtasking was a real eye-opener. I’ll be implementing these ideas—especially protecting blocks of focused time—in my daily work. It’s one of those books that changes how you think about your time completely.

Highly recommended.

[James · Rating 3 out of 5]

1- There's no such thing as multi-tasking. What your brain is doing is 'switch tasking' - swapping quickly from one task to another - which is inefficient. The author provides studies that overwhelmingly support this stance, including one in which researchers were unable to find even 1 piece of evidence that the human brain was capable of performing more than 1 task at a time.

2- There are two types of task switching: Active, being purposeful switching of tasks, and Passive - switches which are forced upon you and interrupt your primary task (such as some co-working asking you questions).

3- Switch tasking isn't effective or time saving. To put it simply, the author states the reason for this is that every time you switch tasks it takes a few minutes to get back to 'full focus', creating lost productivity. Resultantly, the more you switch, the worse it gets.

4 - Sometimes its hard to avoid task switching, but the author provides some way to help minimise it, the bulk of which are based around setting meetings and specific time blocks to deal with other peoples needs. Be it setting meeting with people who regularly need your help, or blocking out a period of time so you can deal with ad-hoc requests; people know a specific time you'll be available rather than hassling you all day.

5 - Time management - Write down how you're currently spending your time. Track everything for a week and identify the areas where you spend the most time, where you don't spend enough time doing things that are important to you, and places where you spend too much time doing the unimportant things. Next, make a time budget. If you want to spend time working on something interesting, or spend time relaxing, or with your family, block that time out in a calendar and respect time block.

6 - If you want other people to do this too, lead by example, don't be prescriptive. Implement all the changes to policies you reasonable can, but don't force people to work the way you do. Overtime people will use your way of working because they feel its a good way of working and not just because they've been told to do so.

If you would like a book that goes into greater detail about the benefits of working on a single task, Deep Work by Cal Newport is a good read.

[Aaron Tesauro · Rating 5 out of 5]

Loved this book - here were some highlights:


THE MYTH OF MULTITASKING
By Dave Crenshaw
Aaron Tesauro’s book excerpts and thoughts compiled June 30, 2012


Multitasking is a Lie
The widely talked about and common word “multitasking” is a lie - but nearly everyone in our fast-paced world has accepted is as something that’s true. We’ve all adopted it as a way of life. People are proud of their skills at multitasking, but the truth is that multitasking is neither a reality nor is it efficient (p. 11).

RE-DEFINING: Multitasking is Actually Switchtasking
You don’t really multitask and do several things at once, you switchtask. You switch back and forth between different tasks. It happens so fast that you don’t even recognize it, but you’re jumping mental tracks. Switchtasking is when you’re trying to perform two or more tasks at the same time that require mental effort (i.e. Answering an e-mail and trying to listen to a coworker).

There is another term that describes a productive use of time doing multiple things: Background tasking. This is when you perform two or more tasks where only one of those tasks requires mental effort. For example: eating dinner and watching TV, or listening to music while jogging (p. 31).

COST OF SWITCHTASKING: Wasted Time
Any time you switch from one activity or thought process to another, there is a cost. This could be the few moments it takes to change mental gears and talk with someone, or the loss of momentum on a project you’re working on (p. 20). No matter how you do it, switching rapidly between two things is just not efficient or effective (p. 33).

Switching costs result when people must go back and review what they’ve done before they can resume work on a task. The more complicated the task…the greater the cost.

The longer a worker is distracted by an interruption, the more likely that they will continue to be interrupted and not resume the task in that same day. (p. 21)

Studies have shown that on average, each person loses about 28% of the workday due to interruption and inefficiencies. Multitasking—or switchtasking—is probably the biggest culprit. (p. 26)

WORK TYPES: Breaking Down the Work Day
During your workday, you are most likely involved in the following types of work:
• Office – Focused time in your office working on projects at your pace.
• E-mail – Reading and writing messages.
• Voice Mail – Listening to messages.
• Phone Calls – Returning calls or making new ones.
• Scheduled Meetings – Scheduled one-time or recurring meetings that are in the calendar.
• Impromptu Meetings – Co-workers stopping by with a quick question for you, or a conversation in the hallway on your way to something else.

TYPES OF TASK SWITCHES: Active and Passive (p. 22)
Active Switches = Task switches that you initiate.
These are times you decide to switch tasks to make a call, get up from your desk and go talk to someone, or decide to check your e-mail on your own. Any time you are making a switch it is an active switch.
Passive Switches = Task switches initiated by someone or something other than you.
Examples include: Automatic e-mail arrival notification, cell phone ringing, or someone walking into your office without an appointment.

EXERCISE:
Write “Multitasking is worse than a lie” one letter at a time, while writing the numbers 1-27 sequentially below it. For example, write “M” then below it write “1.” Move back up and and write “u” then below that “2” and so on. Use a timer to see how long it takes you.
Now do the same thing, except write the sentence all at once, and then write the string of numbers all at once. Time how long it takes you. You should find that it takes you twice as long when you are switchtasking (p. 109).

INTERRUPTIONS: How to Avoid Getting Task Switched
During an average work hour, you’ll most likely be interrupted several times by any of the types of work listed above. You can cut these interruptions by using some of the following methods:
• Turn off the audio and visual alert in your e-mail program so it does not notify you of new mail unless you specifically check it.
• Only check your e-mail at times when you are planning to devote focused time to it.
• Schedule recurring meetings with key people on your team with whom you need to interact with. This gives them a place and time to talk about important matters, without them needing to interrupt you throughout the workday/workweek.
• Let calls go to voice mail and check messages at a specific time when you are prepared to make phone calls. If you want, you can record your voicemail greeting saying when you will check your voice mail and return calls.
• Block off certain times when you can be undisturbed in your office to work on projects.
• Set regular hours when you will be “available” in your office for people to come by.
• Avoid active switchtasking – finish what you are working on before switching to something else.

Review of Key Points/Concepts:
• Recognize that multitasking is a lie.
• Understand the difference between background tasking and switchtasking.
• Become aware of the truth about how you have been using your time on a weekly basis.
• Create a new and realistic budget for how you will use your time on a weekly basis.
• Schedule recurring appointments with your key people.
• Set expectations, and create personal “shop hours” to let people know when you will be available.
• Resist making active switches.
• Minimize all passive switches.
• Give people your full attention when dealing with them.
• Schedule plenty of travel time between appointments.
• Never commit to something without your calendar in hand.

PERSONAL SYSTEMS: How they Relate to the Overall Organization
Your personal systems are the way you operate as a person; how you handle e-mail, voice mail, the ideas in your head, your work space organization, how you use your calendar, and so on. If you don’t have clear, solid personal systems in place for yourself, you become inconsistent (p. 98).

The organization around you is made up of individuals who all have their own personal systems. If the personal systems are not working well, or are inefficient, the whole team or organization suffers because they need to work together to accomplish the end goal.

Each of our Personal Systems affects the larger Organizational System (p. 99).