African Perspectives on Colonialism

The Johns Hopkins Symposia in Comparative History

by A. Adu Boahen

This history deals with the twenty-year period between 1880 and 1900, when virtually all of Africa was seized and occupied by the Imperial Powers of Europe. Eurocentric points of view have dominated the study of this era, but in this book, one of Africa's leading historians reinterprets the colonial experiences from the perspective of the colonized. The Johns Hopkins Symposia in Comparative History are occasional volumes sponsored by the Department of History at the Johns Hopkins University and the Johns Hopkins University Press comprising original essays by leading scholars in the United States and other countries. Each volume considers, from a comparative perspective, an important topic of current historical interest. The present volume is the fifteenth. Its preparation has been assisted by the James S. Schouler Lecture Fund.

Genres: History, Africa, Nonfiction, College, Research, Politics, Literature

133 pages, Paperback

First published January 1, 1987

About the author

Albert Kwadwo Adu Boahen was born in Oseim to Presbyterian parents, and had his ancestral roots in Juaben-Asante. He attended religious schools between 1938 and 1947. He then spent three years at the Mfantsipim School before enrolling in history studies at the University College of the Gold Coast in Legon. He graduated in 1956. In 1959 he received a Ph.D in African history from the School of Oriental and African Studies in London, as the first Ghanaian.

He was employed at the University of Ghana in 1959, and was a professor from 1971 to his retirement in 1990. He chaired the Department of History there from 1967 to 1975, as the first African to do so, and was a dean from 1973 to 1975. He also served on the editorial board of the Journal of African History published by Cambridge University Press, and was a visiting scholar at such institutions as the Australian National University in 1969, Columbia University in 1970 and the State University of New York in 1990 and 1991. Between 1993 and 1999, he also worked in the UNESCO committee that published the eight-volume work General History of Africa.
Boahen's academic work crossed over into politics. In February 1988 he publicly lectured on the history of Ghana from 1972 to 1987. Because of this, he is credited with breaking the so-called "culture of silence" which marked the regime of President Jerry Rawlings, who had served continuously since 1981. The lectures, originally held in the British Council Hall in Accra, were published in 1998 as The Ghanaian Sphinx: The Contemporary History of Ghana 1972-1987.

In 1990 he co-founded the Movement for Freedom and Justice, and served as its first chairman. The ban on political parties in Ghana was lifted in 1992. In the subsequent 1992 presidential election, Boahen was the New Patriotic Party's nominee. He lost to Jerry Rawlings, but received 30.4% of the vote. Due to dissatisfaction with alleged ballot rigging in that election, Boahen boycotted the next Ghanaian parliamentary election in 1992. In the Ghanaian presidential election in 1996, John Kufour stood as candidate for the New Patriotic Party, and fared somewhat better than Boahen with 39.6%. In 1998, Boahen tried to return as New Patriotic Party presidential nominee, but Kufour was chosen instead. Ultimately, Kufour won the Ghanaian presidential election, 2000 and became President.

Boahen spoke out against Marxist history early in his career. Politically, he described himself as "a liberal democrat, a believer in the freedom of the individual, the welfare of the governed, and in private enterprise and the market economy".

Reviews

[Andrew · Rating 5 out of 5]

Much of the history of African colonialism has been written from the viewpoint of the colonizers. This book provides a very good perspective of the colonial period but from an African viewpoint. The author describes the state of the continent on the eve of its partition and goes on to show the causes of the many challenges that its nations have faced even into the 21st Century.

[conec · Rating 4 out of 5]

Chapter One is titled “Eve of Colonial Conquest“ and gives a background to colonialism through a look at the fundamental economic, political, and social changes that occurred in Africa just a few decades before Colonialism took root. Of the drastic shifts that transpired in Africa up until 1880, Boahen begins with the shift from the abolished slave trade to the trade of “natural products”, which he names as the most significant economic change in Africa by 1880 . He explained some of the consequences of this shift, such as a transition from wars and raids to peace and stability, a more “equitable distribution of wealth” , and the African rural economy becoming more integrated into the global economy. The second most important economic change that Boahen identifies is the emergence of three trade systems: the Atlantic, the Mediterranean, and the Indian Ocean coasts systems and the interconnection of all these systems . He discusses the economic and social consequences of the linking of these trade systems and claims that the following changes were due mostly in part to this linking: unified local trade networks, the rise of a new elite of traders who in certain areas replaced the former aristocracies, and a spread of culture and language. Of political trends, he touches on the push toward greater centralization seen in various parts of Africa and the efforts of modernization that were in progress by 1880. Modernization was seen in the use of new technologies, in militaries and in experimentation in the constitutional field. For this experimentation in the constitutional field, Boahen exemplifies the Fante Confederation and comments on the objects of the confederation as outlined in its constitution. According to Boahen, it was the social field that saw the more revolutionary changes and it was religion that was changing the most. Christianity, which had hitherto been confined to coastal regions, spread inland and the establishment of missionary societies resulted in stratification into a small group of converted African educated elites and a vastly larger group of traditional and illiterate Africans. Boahen identifies the development of African religious nationalism and an intellectual revolution as being direct consequences of the emergence of this educated elite . In basic terms, the educated Africans were exposed to the racist theories Europeans held toward them and the realization left them with feelings of humiliation which spurred a turn toward their own culture and identity. Ethiopianism was a movement to start churches that were run by Africans themselves and fit with their own culture and traditions. Beyond Ethiopianism, the educated elite actively produced writings and speeches that refuted the racist European ideas and practices. This campaign caused an intellectual revolution that took form in Pan-Africanism and the ideology of African personality. Near the end of the chapter Boahen used the words of African leaders of the time to represent the optimism and readiness to face challenges paired with a determination to protect their sovereignty and way of life which characterized the time period and is congruent with the central idea of the chapter. In the beginning of the chapter, Boahen points out the “resourcefulness and adaptability” of the Africans while dealing with the changes in their economy due to the end of the slave trade, and the idea that Africans showed readiness to handle adversity was shown again in the discussion of consequences from changes in the religious field.


Chapter two is titled “Imposition of the Colonial system” but is less concerned with the imposition of colonialism in Africa and is, as Boahen states on page 34 and 35, really concerned with the initiatives and reactions of the Africans in the midst of the imperialistic activities of Europeans that occurred in the final couple of decades of the nineteenth century. Boahen uses the chapter to look at the events of the Scramble which he separates into three stages, and the strategies employed by Africans to maintain their independent power which he also divides into three categories. The chapter starts off with a quick look at explanations of the circumstances that caused the scramble to which Boahen responds by stating “the nature of the internal conditions of Africa and the presence or absence of the slave trade could not did not and precipitate the Scramble” and that “besides the strong economic forces precipitating the Scramble, there were also political and social forces”causing it. Be that as it may, Boahen agrees that the most significant and decisive factor force leading to the Scramble was economic. Of the political forces at hand, Boahen names the “exaggerated spirit of nationalism in Europe” as the most important political factor. The exaggerated nationalism manifested itself in an interest to display greatness through possessing colonies. Of the separate stages of the Scramble, the first was the finalizing of treaties between African rulers and European imperial powers under which the African rulers were given protection and agreed not to enter treaties with other European powers while the European powers gained exclusive rights to trading and other things. The second stage involved the event of European imperial powers signing treaties between each other. These treaties were predicated on the “earlier treaties of protection which defined their spheres of interest and delimited their boundaries”. The last stage of the scramble was of European conquest of their spheres and the act of occupying them. During the first stage, a majority of Africans were took very welcoming stances in respect to the treaties and the Europeans they negotiated with. Their accommodating attitudes were consequences of African rulers being treated as equals of the Europeans, the fact that a lot of African rulers required protection and assistance against rivals or other European powers, and the reality of Africans being misled into agreement with the treaties by means of clauses and implications that were not elucidated to them. The Africans neither participated or had knowledge of the process occurring in stage two, but they “realized the full implications of the race in progress” by stage three. In order to protect their sovereignty during stage three, Africans made use of the three main strategies: submission, alliance, and confrontation. In cases of submission, rulers either submitted because of the futility of confrontation or because their need of protection from the Europeans was dire. Boahen addresses the classification of African rulers who formed alliances with European powers as “collaborators” by historians and says the term should be avoided because it implies that African rulers allied with European powers for selfish ends but in actuality they did it to achieve sovereignty for their state. Confrontation was seen in two forms: peaceful or diplomatic methods, and armed and militant and relatively few cases of confrontation saw a cling to diplomacy alone.


Chapter three is titled “The Operation of the Colonial System”. In order for the colonial system to support the need for raw materials and markets for the sale of manufactured goods , a set of prerequisites (such as primary means of production being met, health structures, infrastructure, and education of Africans necessary for employing them) needed to be satisfied but were met by establishing administrations that did this by means of exploiting Africa and Africans. “It was in the economic field, of course, that the colonial powers exerted their greatest efforts… All the colonial administrators ensured that land was made available to Europeans, mainly through confiscation and the expulsion and resettlement of the indigenous peoples”. Some colonies forced Africans to grow cash crops, yet in all colonies Africans were shoved out of the import-export business as a consequence of expatriate firms and companies being handed exclusive free rein to import the manufactured goods being produced and to control pricing of imports and exports . In his examination and explanation of the African’s reactions to the nature of the colonial system, Boahen divides the colonial era into the periods from the 1890s to roughly the end of World War I, 1919 to 1935, and 1935 to the 1960s . Boahen asserts that the illiterate and traditional rulers from the rural areas had different reactions to the actions of the colonial system during the first indicated period, in terms of objectives and strategies, than those of the urban populations and educated elite . The most common strategies and objectives among rural areas which were rebellion and insurrection with intention to overthrow the new colonial system were all met with brutal suppression. The other strategies of the rural and illiterate Africans were migration, refusal to work, and rejection of the colonial schools, languages and churches. Educated elite and urban workers’ aim was to reform the colonial system, with the main objectives of correcting certain abuses, providing facilities (namely in the areas of education and economics), and sufficient representation on the executive and legislative councils. To attain these goals, they utilized literary media, petitions, and sometimes strikes or boycotts. The difference between the reactions of the Africans in the first two periods, Boahen claims, were (with a few exceptions) “more of a degree than of a kind”, of “an intensification and a more sophisticated of the old strategies” and involved a greater number of people. Another notable difference between the first and second periods under inspection was the introduction of trade unions during the latter. By the period from 1935 to the 1960s, efforts to reform the colonial system grew even in intensity and sophisticated due to the events of the world wars and economic factors.


Chapter four, the final chapter, is titled “The Colonial Impact” and it is in this chapter that the thesis of the book appears on page 109: “...given the opportunities, the resources, and the power and influence of the colonial rulers, they could and should have done far more than they did for Africa. And it is for this failure that the colonial era will go down in history as a period of wasted opportunities, of ruthless exploitation of the resources of Africa, and on balance of the underdevelopment and humiliation of the peoples of Africa.” Throughout the chapter, Boahen names the beneficial and harmful consequences of the impacts that colonialism had on Africa in the economic, political, and social fields in what he calls “the colonial balance sheet”. He starts first by addressing the effects colonialism had on the political field, beginning with the “era of continuous peace, order, and stability” that set in after the violence and instability that ensued during the first three decades of the colonial era had passed. The next positive political impact he claims is the independent states of Africa coming into view. Boundaries that were drawn arbitrarily resulted in problems, one of which is the problem of nation-state building when state boundaries have been drawn around regions hosting several ethnocultural groups with their own distinct languages and cultures. Another problem that came from these boundaries was the encumbrances caused by unequal access to resources. The third positive political impact of colonialism that Boahen lists is the introduction of a new bureaucracy of civil servants and judicial system which he notes have remained intact in the African states. “The generation of a sense of nationalism as well as the intensification of the spirit of Pan-Africanism” is the next positive impact he evaluates. He states that the nationalism came from a hatred of colonialism and left behind the problem of creating a “more positive force of nationalism” in the nonexistence of colonialism’s exploitative and degrading presence. I appreciate the sarcasm the well justified sarcasm Boahen uses when he speaks of the legacies of colonialism in Africa here, especially with regards to the professional armies. The last political impact Boahen articulates on is the delay in political development and maturation of African states. “If colonialism meant anything at all politically, it was the loss of sovereignty and independence by the colonized peoples.” He argues that underdevelopment and “technological backwardness” was a consequence of this loss of sovereignty. Important economic impacts of colonialism Boahen names are infrastructure and modes of communication, the development of the primary sector of Africa’s economy. Land in Africa raised in value, Africans were enabled to acquire wealth, and African economy became integrated into the world economy. But, these economic developments of colonialism still had their negative side. Of these negative effects, Boahen starts with the fact that the infrastructure provided was inadequate and very unevenly distributed which resulted in uneven economic development. He also argues that the colonial system led to delayed developments in industry and technology. Since Africans were pushed to “produce what they did not consume and consume what they did not produce”, they were left relying on importation of basic dietary staples. Colonialism, he says, put an end to inter-African trade which stunted the spread of language and culture and led regions to depend on metropolitan places for trade. Some of the social benefits of colonial impact Boahen identifies are population growth, urbanization, and the spread of Christianity, Islam and Western education.

[Daniel Rothwell · Rating 1 out of 5]

First chapter is worthwhile (primarily for quotations, but it's all one needs to get a feel for the writer and his situation, which is excepting the sparse quotations the only interesting part of the book). The rest is hopelessly outdated

[Michael Skora · Rating 2 out of 5]

I found this book incredibly clear and comprehensive up until its final chapter. Unfortunately, despite the author’s correct analysis that exploitative economic motivations and practices chiefly characterized European colonization and his affirmation that African states and groups did not willingly give up their sovereignty without regard for political self-preservation, the last chapter on colonialism’s ramifications is a nearly incoherent flip-flop of the previously established observations.

Despite denouncing the drastically negative political, economic, and psychological consequences of colonialism, Albert Adu Boahen - a Ghanaian author - somehow describes the colonization of Africa as a “missed opportunity” for colonial development of infrastructure and educational “Western norms.” With almost no self-awareness, the author nearly equivocates colonization’s supposed “benefits” to its overwhelming dehumanization and exploitation of the colonized under the imperialism. Ironically, Boahen” conclusion indirectly accepts the “white man’s burden” as a hypothetically good idea.

That such an outrageous and incongruous ending came out of a book titled “African Perspectives on Colonization” is particularly offensive.

[Kaelyn · Rating 5 out of 5]

I initially had to read this book for a college course titled "History of Modern Africa." Being someone that is not extremely fond of history (or at least the way most history books are written), I wasn't looking forward to open this book. However, A. Adulting Boahen made history exciting and easy to understand! A few pages in and this was no longer about class requirement; I truly wanted to read this book! The writing style was engaging, thoughts were well organized, and it was a short and easy read. Additionally, it was refreshing to read a history book (especially about Africa) with an Afrocentric perspective; the book is appropriately named. I would recommend this book to anyone interested in history or to anyone who simply wants a better understanding of colonialism in Africa from the 1880s to the 1970s.

[Christy Bartel · Rating 5 out of 5]

I’m finishing up all my textbooks, woo! I finished this Saturday while on the plane ALL DAY from the east coast to the west coast.

This book was a collection of lectures from a guy who knew his stuff about the African continent. I loved the way he contextualizad the pre-imperialist era of the late 19th century and made it clear that Africa was in a spot to grow as much as Europe was. It’s also always a good reminder that the slave trade technically ended before imperialism and besides some Portuguese ports and Dutch settlements in South Africa, the African continent (especially its impregnable interior) was not colonized at all. And also Africa was tied in with global markets before the Americas.

[Lora · Rating 4 out of 5]

I picked this one up at the used bookstore in Durham, and though I knew it would be academic, I'm not disappointed. I'm excited to be learning more about the history of Africa and its interactions with the rest of the world. The first chapter, on Africa before colonialism, could probably be its own book.

[Fatema Al Darii · Rating 5 out of 5]

I absolutely loved the fresh, new and logical prespective shed by this book. Most, if not all, of my education has had Eurocentric prespectives that failed to accuratly capture or describe the African prespective on colonialism as well as Boahen does. His writing style is engaging and easy to follow which speaks to his vast knowledge on the topic and his ability as a great communicator.

[Panda · Rating 4 out of 5]

A book about colonialism written by an African, a Ghanaian as a matter of fact. This is very necessary as it things are viewed through a different lens! A very informative and concise work of history!

[Lisa Reads & Reviews · Rating 5 out of 5]

Fascinating. New information, for me.

[Patrick Musau · Rating 5 out of 5]

“My charge against colonialism is not that it did not do anything for Africa, but that it did so little and that little so accidentally and indirectly; not that the economy of Africa under colonialism did not grow but that it grew more to the advantage of the colonial powers and the expatriate owners and shareholders of the companies operating in Africa than to the Africans; not that improvements did not take place in the lives of African peoples but that such improvements were so limited and largely confined to the urban areas; not that education was not provided but that what was provided was so inadequate and so irrelevant to the needs and demands of the Africans themselves; not that there was no upward social mobility but that a relatively small number of Africans did get to the top. In short given the opportunities, the resources and the power and influence of the colonial rulers, they could have done far more than they did for Africa. And it is for this failure that the colonial era will go down in history as a period of wasted opportunities, of ruthless exploitation of the resources of Africa, and on the balance of the underdevelopment and humiliation of the peoples of Africa”

[Benjamin · Rating 5 out of 5]

Well written with a convincing historical narrative, I found this book informative despite its short length. It's a shame the author lacked the time to delve deeper into the topics of the book. I also feel the time is ripe for a new and expended edition that would explore the disengagement of Europe from Africa in the decades following decolonization. While the book does advocate for an anti-imperialist view of African history the first priority is clearly establishing historical fact, something I very much appreciated, in contrast to some of the more ideological writing I've encountered about Africa. I also feel the book benefits from being written about Africa by a prominent African historian. No matter how learned an outside historian may be, I always feel they miss something about Africa, even if they take efforts to avoid projecting their own nation's issues onto the continent.

[Drew Edwards · Rating 4 out of 5]

This text provides an impressively concise and expansive history of colonization across the African continent. Due to its ambition, only most prominent figures and movements from most studied regions are given real estate on these pages. Nevertheless, A. Adu Boahen’s zeal does not lack even the slightest nuance in concluding, “given the opportunities, the resources, and the power and influence of the colonial rulers, they could and should have done far more than they did for Africa...the colonial era will go down in history as a period of Easter opportunities, of ruthless exploitation, of the resources of Africa, and in the balance of the underdevelopment and humiliation of the people’s of Africa”

[Valerie Sherman · Rating 4 out of 5]

Westerners don't know much about European colonialism in Africa, and what we do know, it's from the European perspective. This short read establishes the colonial history (which was surprisingly recent in my view, beginning in 1880), reactions from the people and leaders, and the impact of its relatively short history on the continent (1880-1970). The author is even-handed, admitting some benefits while clearly establishing the overall negative impact.

[Anyanka · Rating 5 out of 5]

Reading books about colonializm in Africa from an african perspective is revelationary. What europe teaches or rather forgets to teach is the whole story and the great harm that was caused. As european people who did not live in colonial times we don't see ourselves being connected to the problems in Africa but we are. Books like these are important to illustrate how much

[Dave · Rating 4 out of 5]

Concise and far-reaching, this serves as an effective introduction to the effects of colonialism in African from the African perspective. It is too short and too broad to convey anything meaningful about the effects on individual nations or peoples, but as a means of understanding the context for the current state of the continent, I found it very helpful.

[Kiara · Rating 3 out of 5]

Interesting, but definitely not the best book about colonial Africa. This book was written in 1987, and you can tell- there are some sections in here that are wildly outdated, and so much has happened since then that it's difficult to take some of the author's conclusions seriously. Still, there were some interesting arguments here, and Boahen is an excellent history writer.

[Alexa Garcia · Rating 4 out of 5]

Read this for my Colonialism & Liberation in Modern Africa course, really important read that delves into the development of colonialism, era of legitimate commerce, colonial/post-colonial response, & more!

[_Liebert · Rating 5 out of 5]

Though there's exactly one or two lines that come close to a dull, "well, each side makes their points", I can't imagine finding a more in depth and precise discussion of what Africa has experienced from colonialism.

[Charles · Rating 4 out of 5]

A very informative, helpful, and concise overview of Africa under European colonialism.

[Maria · Rating 4 out of 5]

A comprehensive review of African potential prior to intervention and the impacts of colonialism on the lasting legacy of African nations. The narrative was unique that it came from the perspective of an African rather than a Eurocentric view. However, I would have appreciated more direct responses/contradictions to eurocentrism in the overall discussion.

1 star off because the writing style.

[Leif · Rating 5 out of 5]

A fantastic read with a perspective that few trouble themselves to take, despite the easy fluency of postcolonial theory. It is a pleasure to read well-organized and thoughtfully-weighed chapters with such important information.

[Keana · Rating 4 out of 5]

Boahen critiques capitalism through his critique of colonialism yet in the end supports it.

[Jonathan]

Eye opening.

[Rachael Lind · Rating 4 out of 5]

A fascinating book that jams a ton of information into only a little more than 100 pages. If interested at all in either Colonialism or African history, this is a great book.

[Thomas · Rating 4 out of 5]

short and pretty basic but good as an intro, some cool stuff that i didn't know about, like the intellectual movements just prior to the scramble.

[Daniel · Rating 3 out of 5]

Essential to the understanding of African History!

[Lucky Uwam]

nice