Second Nature: The Inner Lives of Animals

by Jonathan Balcombe, J.M. Coetzee (Foreword)

For centuries we believed that humans were the only ones that mattered. The idea that animals had feelings was either dismissed or considered heresy. Today, that’s all changing. New scientific studies of animal behavior reveal perceptions, intelligences, awareness and social skills that would have been deemed fantasy a generation ago. The implications make our troubled relationship to animals one of the most pressing moral issues of our time.

Jonathan Balcombe, animal behaviorist and author of the critically acclaimed Pleasurable Kingdom, draws on the latest research, observational studies and personal anecdotes to reveal the full gamut of animal experience—from emotions, to problem solving, to moral judgment. Balcombe challenges the widely held idea that nature is red in tooth and claw, highlighting animal traits we have disregarded until now: their nuanced understanding of social dynamics, their consideration for others, and their strong tendency to avoid violent conflict. Did you know that dogs recognize unfairness and that rats practice random acts of kindness? Did you know that chimpanzees can trounce humans in short-term memory games? Or that fishes distinguish good guys from cheaters, and that birds are susceptible to mood swings such as depression and optimism?

With vivid stories and entertaining anecdotes, Balcombe gives the human pedestal a strong shake while opening the door into the inner lives of the animals themselves.

Genres: Animals, Nonfiction, Nature, Science, Vegan, Biology, Environment

242 pages, Hardcover

First published January 1, 2010

About the author

Jonathan Balcombe was born in England, raised in New Zealand and Canada, and has lived in the United States since 1987. He has three biology degrees, including a PhD in ethology (the study of animal behavior) from the University of Tennessee, where he studied communication in bats. He has published over 45 scientific papers on animal behavior and animal protection.

He is the author of four books. Jonathon is currently at work on a new book about the inner lives of fishes, and a novel titled After Meat.

Formerly Senior Research Scientist with the Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine, Jonathan is currently the Department Chair for Animal Studies with the Humane Society University.

Based near Washington, DC, in his spare time Jonathan enjoys biking, baking, birdwatching, piano, painting, and trying to understand his two cats.

Reviews

[Corvus · Rating 4 out of 5]

This book, more often than not, is written in a manner I wish far more books about non-human animals with a strong focus on scientific studies were written. Balcombe does well to inform us of the research that was available at the time of this book while also considering how that research was executed and the ethics involved. Instead of just rattling off a bunch of studies without any criticism, he balances telling us what we learn from them while also discussing the methods and whether or not they violate our ethical principles when applied to ourselves or some other species in different scenarios. I wish books like this were taught alongside the horrific animal literature often treated as gospel in biology, neuroscience, psychology, etc studies. When I was in college, any questioning of the ethics of animal abuse was immediately shut down. Due to what animal researchers perceive as some sort of personal attack, those who advocate for animals must be silenced by any means. And this has resulted in escalations of tactics over time. But if schools were truly interested in a balanced level of study, we should be discussing the ways other animals- and for that matter marginalized humans- are/were exploited by scientists in the terms that dominant scientific cultures often do. Many students come into these studies questioning the ethics, pushing back, or at least feeling uncomfortable on their own. To pretend that conditioning this out of people either through shaming or through forcing them to repeatedly abuse animals in order to get their degrees is a defensible pedagogical method is at odds with the knowledge seeking that science and education should be about.

This book is full of so many interesting things that I did not know about many species. I filled it with page flags. I assume that much more has come out since the publication of this book. I found Balcombe to be more direct in his criticisms of animal abuse in this book then he is in later works of his. Maybe he worries about turning off those on the fence and is choosing different tactics. Either way, it is refreshing to see someone actually acknowledge the monster in the room that is the exploitation and abuse of others for the sake of human interest, often executed by those with the most privilege and power in societies. It is good to see someone call attention to the irony of scientists seeking to prove empathy does or does not exist in a certain species by using methods showing the scientists' own severe lack of empathy for other animals. While sciences have become more diversified over time it is nowhere near equal. And we know from history that medicine and science have not ever been purely honorable fields we're subjects and patients were treated with respect rather than abused for curiosity. That includes humans.

The reason I'm giving this book four stars instead of five is due to the author falling into the same traps that many men writing on these subjects fall into. And I'm applying this to both men who support other animals agency as well as men who don't and who are more mainstream. One of the red flags is some of his discussions of evolutionary psychology in ways that don't tackle the problematic elements of it. He makes some statements that based in patriarchal and/or heteronormative analyses of data. However as the book moves forward, he is regularly critical of these sort of assessments and how evolutionary science has misrepresented the realities of other animals.

I also think that he could have done better in his discussions of specific instances of animal exploitation to focus on colonialism. Sometimes he favors just talking about human cruelty and exploitation of other animals without discussing how colonialism fits into that. But this is often not the case and he blames colonialism in depth. His discussion of human population growth at the end of the book also misses the mark at times. He does directly address capitalism, including speaking with multiple economists about the fallacy of sustainable growth. But at the same time he talks about population density devoid of the reality that not all dense populations are consuming and producing the most damage. Some very dense populations, come nowhere near to the consumption and pollution levels of a place like the United States who might have a less dense population. I understand what he's trying to do and say, but I think perhaps he should have looked into the subject more.

My biggest issue and what I find are the largest mistakes he makes are in brief discussions of disability regarding humans. Strangely enough he does well to discuss how disabilities in nonhuman animals often can result in kindness and cooperation or protection from others in their social groups or species. This is not always the case of course, but this is a welcome focus. Unfortunately when discussing disabled humans he uses outdated terms like handicapped even for the time that this book was written and makes the same faux pas that Peter Singer does in discussions of how ableism is used to deny other animals worth. One could go the accurate and admirable route of someone like Sunaura Taylor in such a discussion and talk about how ableism harms both humans and other animals and how ableism is used to oppress and pit both disabled humans and other animals against each other. This is unfortunately not what he does. Like Singer, he makes the same sort of disgusting comments about how "healthy" or nondisabled animals are not offered consideration, when we even offer it to "the mentally handicapped." Framed in this way, it's no wonder that many disability activists believe that animal liberation is in conflict with disabled human liberation when it is actually not in it's pure form when not polluted by ableist philosophies like this one.

These problems take up very very small sections of the book which is why I only docked one star for them. If we were talking larger sections I would have written it off as more than passing prejudices coming through which are present in every science book I've ever read. And I do think the author has come far and how he is chosen to discuss and approach these things over time.

Overall, as long as professors could apply such awareness to these flaws, as they should to the flaws in all of their teaching materials, texts like these would be extremely valuable to add to curriculum and I imagine could revolutionize the sciences and their mistreatment of imprisoned and/or exploited beings who they choose to study. After all, the meager guidelines sometimes adhered to these days did not come about due to the consciences of animal exploiters across the board- even though they would like us to think so and claim that adherence to these guidelines means that their abuse and killing of millions of animals are ethical. They came about through the efforts and activism of the animal advocates that scientists who abuse animals declare to be their enemies.

Edit: typos and incorrect words from speech-to-text

[Mag · Rating 4 out of 5]

This is a book with a mission. The author tries to convince us that animals are sentient and feeling creatures and we should treat them with dignity. That includes not eating them and not using them in experiments of any nature.
What a change from Hauser’s book! Balcome devotes the whole book to convince us that inner lives of animals are not much poorer than ours. He shows that they are capable of altruistic behavior and some of them operate with an obvious theory of mind, display social behavior, sense of fairness and group decision making.
Contrary to Hauser, Balcombe claims that animals have moral sense, feel empathy and have sense of fairness. In addition to apes, he cites the case of cormorants who would help fishermen by diving for fish as long as every seventh fish is theirs. They refuse to dive and help out again if the order is not kept and their seventh fish is withheld from them showing thereby not only a sense of fairness but also an ability to count.
The info that was completely new and surprising to me was on animal group decision-making. It turns out that decisions in many animals groups are made quite democratically. A decision for a group to move on is made when a majority- typically about 60% of the group- wants to move on. For example, in case of deer an individual decision is shown by standing up, swans vote by the head movement, and in African buffalo the females make a decision and the rest follows.

An interesting book even though not terribly well written.
3.5/5

[Desiree · Rating 4 out of 5]

just read it. and then stop being so human-centric. all of you! :P

[jeremy · Rating 4 out of 5]

as the author himself points out a few different times, a book like this could not have been printed decades ago (or, had it been, it would have been laughingly dismissed). second nature: the inner lives of animals is a fascinating, often unbelievable foray into the latest science regarding animal intelligence, behavior, and the like. balcombe's work as an animal behavior research scientist has undoubtedly led to discoveries similar to those he outlines in the book.

much of second nature serves to expose the cartesian view of the animal world as antiquated (and self-servingly naïve). dispelling the anthropocentric belief of animals as mere automatons (unable to feel pain), balcombe cites dozens of studies that show animals exhibiting a range of mental and emotional faculties heretofore thought impossible. the book is divided into three parts (experience, coexistence, and emergence) and features chapters on animal sensitivity, intelligence, emotions, awareness, communication, sociability, and virtue (amongst others).

second nature is above all a science book, though a remarkably accessible and inviting one. largely made up of anecdotes culled from more exhaustive studies, the book contains no anthropomorphic accounts of cute, furry animals exhibiting human-like behaviors. instead, balcombe's book demonstrates that throughout the animal kingdom there are species that exhibit a remarkable range of behaviors whose depth and complexity illustrate a world few humans have thought existed. in the final chapters, the author offers convincing arguments against vivisection and animal cruelty (as well as for reducing meat consumption) that will be familiar to those already concerned with animal welfare. balcombe seems optimistic that humanity is on the verge of a new era where animals' lives are regarded with a greater degree of compassion (and writes about laws already sweeping europe to ensure just this).

that animals of all kinds are intelligent, sentient, and empathetic individuals may not come as a surprise to many. as the scientific literature regarding these subjects swells, we may no longer be able to dismiss mammals, birds, insects, and others as subordinates for much longer. second nature contains some truly astonishing insights about animal behavior, and is an engaging, thoughtful guide to the pioneering work of ethologists worldwide.

"it is of interest to note that while some dolphins are reported to have learned english- up to fifty words used in correct context- no human being has been reported to have learned dolphinese."
~carl sagan (as quoted in the book)

[Rachel · Rating 5 out of 5]

An extremely thoughtful look at not only the lives of animals, but of our moral and ethical thoughts about them. At first the focus is on animals, their behaviour, sentience, how their senses differ depending on physiology, and finally on their emotions. Although scientific research is always used as evidence, this author never starts with an "they don't have this until it is proven otherwise" attitude, instead he is most willing to give the benefit of the doubt. One particular point is emphasized, animals in the group setting are not as violent as many of us believe. They share, work together, and on the rare occasion that they do fight, the submission of the loser is accepted. It rarely ends with death.This is contrary to what most nature programs say, and reflects more on our fascination with violence, than how much actually occurs. In reality more deaths are caused by humans than any other species, but we never include ourselves in statistics comparing animals. Having looked at the emotions in animals, a new focus is presented, since animals have emotions what does that mean about how we treat them. Do we have the right to cause them suffering? Should we use them for our benefits knowing that we do? Finally, at the end a hopeful note is left for us, we are learning.

[Zoom · Rating 3 out of 5]

I already agreed with Balcombe's essential points about animals being sentient (ie they're capable of experiencing pain and pleasure), so how we treat them matters. Maybe I wasn't his target audience, because I felt like he was trying to convince me of that throughout the book. I might have given the book 4 stars, but there were so many detailed descriptions of animal abuse, which made it an emotionally painful book to read. The problem is, the people who need to be convinced of his arguments aren't likely to read his book, and the people who already agree with him can't bear to read it.

[The Wandering Bibliophile · Rating 5 out of 5]

I literally finished this book in the span of 24 hours. It was amazing. I can't recommend it highly enough to those who are concerned with animal welfare. While I borrowed the book from the library this time I will most definitely be purchasing it for my own library as there were numerous passages that I desperately wanted to take a highlighter to.

Definitely my first "favorite" of 2011.

[Julia Rubin · Rating 5 out of 5]

An exceptionally researched, candid and extraordinary book. A must-read for animal lovers and those narrow-minded about animals.

[Steven H · Rating 5 out of 5]

AN ARGUMENT FOR ANIMAL RIGHTS BASED ON THEIR CAPACITY TO EXPERIENCE

Jonathan Balcombe is an ethologist and author who formerly was with the Human Society. He explains in an introductory section of this 2010 book, “My chief aim in this book is to close the gap between human beings and animals---by helping us understand the animal experience, and by elevating animals from their lowly status… Just thirty years ago it was scientific heresy to ascribe such emotions as delight, boredom, or joy to a nonhuman. It was unheard of to say that fishes feel pain, never mind that they have culture, and it would have been a joke to entertain the idea that animals might actually have some moral awareness… researchers around the world have found that there is more thought and feeling in animals than humans have ever imagined. By showing that animals think and feel richly, that they are highly sentient and sometimes even virtuous, I hope to convince you that we cannot continue to treat animals cruelly or carelessly…

“With all that we have learned about animals, we can no longer plead ignorance. Science is now revealing that animals are more aware and sophisticate then we thought, proving that the popular portrayals and perceptions of wile nature are biased and impoverished… I close with my view of how we should turn our relationship with animals in a kinder direction. A new humanity is in order---one that demands a new ethic of mutual tolerance and respect for the other creatures doing their best to share the planet with us… one of the lessons to be learned from climate change, biodiversity loss, urban sprawl, ethnic conflicts, and economic downturns is that when we abuse or neglect fauna and flora, we also harm ourselves in the process.” (Pg. 4-5)

He observes, “The evolution of sentience---the capacity for pain and pleasure---was a crucial turning point in biological history, affecting all animals. Before sentience, living organisms had no moral consequence, for two reasons. First, an organism without feelings cannot suffer. Second, eons had to pass before there would be any highly involved minds to reflect on moral matters such as the rightness or wrongness of an action. But for a sentient creature, things can be perceived to be going well or poorly… Morality didn’t originate with humans… but acute moral awareness is one of humankind’s greatest achievements. It is also one of our heaviest burdens.” (Pg. 13)

He notes, “The problem in our relationship with animals is that our treatment of them hasn’t evolved to keep up with our knowledge. While we have banned bearbaiting and passed some animal welfare laws, animals’ position relative to a sphere of moral consequence remains unchanged: they are outside it. As long as we provide a reason that our harming them is ‘necessary’---for example, to eat them, to make garments from them, to use them in tests for human safety, and so on---then we may do so, even though we do not accept using humans in these ways… I will not try to convince you that animals are merely other manifestations of humans… But, as Charles Darwin famously said, these are degrees of difference, not kind. And how those differences translate into how humans treat animals is well worth our careful consideration.” (Pg. 14)

He suggests, “As we learn more about fishes and their mental capacities and sentience, we are beginning to revise our previous dismissive attitude toward them… As researchers at the Norwegian School of Veterinary Science point out, because individuals suffer and not species, the ramification of fishes’ capacity to feel pain and to suffer are great, given the enormous numbers of fishes humans exploit and kill.” (Pg. 42)

He states, “The important thing for humans to recognize is that animals do indeed have feelings, and that to the animals these are every bit as important as our own feelings are to us. As we awaken to animals’ emotional sensitivity, we’ll become more attuned and, I hope, more sympathetic, toward their emotional vulnerabilities and needs.” (Pg. 60)

He summarizes, “Over thirty years of studying, living with, and thinking about animals has taught me that nonhuman beings with whom we chare the planet are no less sensitive than we are, and that their emotionality, intelligence, and awareness make them fully worthy of our deepest concern and consideration. These creatures are not merely alive, but they have lives of their own that matter to them. When we see animals for what they are---autonomous, sentient beings with interests---we must realize that they were not put here for us.” (Pg. 77-78)

He argues, “When a dog shows deference for a kitten, or when a rat forgoes food to relive the pain of another, I think what we’re seeing is the natural behavior of a socially adept animal. Caring about others is what keeps societies efficiently humming along. Pain is bad, no matter who is feeling it, and if it takes a bit of self-sacrifice to help another, that’s the natural thing to do.” (Pg. 134)

He states, “We may think that animals evolve to reach greater functional complexity higher intelligence and larger size, but there are many cases that counter that notion. Environment plays an important role in deciding which functions are important to have… the blind cave-dwelling fish is less complex yet more highly evolved. This example illustrates one of the central fallacies of the progressivist bias: the assumption that more evolved forms are inherently more complex… while there are trends through time because greater sophistication may confer advantages in the survival sweepstakes, evolution itself is (as it were) as blind as a cave-dwelling fish.” (Pg. 165-166)

He states, “The practice of vivisection subscribes to a view that growing numbers of humans question on ethical grounds. It is the view that we are morally entitled to inflict severe harm on other sentient animals in the pursuit of our own interests… which we conveniently designate are more compelling than theirs. It is, in short, the idea that we have the right to do something because we have the power to do it. One of the plainest moral objections to this might-makes-right attitude is that it is vulnerable to the ‘intelligent alien’ scenario: If the might-makes-right justification were valid, then we must concede that there would be nothing immoral about a ‘superior’ race of aliens arriving to enslave, kill, and eat us.” (Pg. 177)

He concludes, “As we’ve seen, fishes and other vertebrate animals have inner lives. As individuals with sensations, perceptions, emotions, and awareness, they experience life. Having the capacity to remember past events, and to anticipate future ones, animals’ lives are not merely a series of now-moments… As active participants in dynamic communities teeming with other life forms, animals benefit by being on the ball, and learning from their experiences. Many live in rich social networks, where individuals benefit by forming friendships and by cooperating with others. These capacities endow animals with interests of their own. They are not just living things; they are BEINGS WITH LIVES. And that makes all the difference in the world. When we make compassionate personal choices according to how they affect another, we are practicing Second Nature… Second Nature sees animals living rich sensory lives with hardships and rewards---like our lives… Extending our empathy and concern toward all who experience the ups and downs of life is neither strange nor radical. It is, after all, Second Nature.” (Pg. 203-204)

This book will be of great interest to those interested in animal rights and animal welfare, and well as consciousness studies of animals.

[Colette · Rating 2 out of 5]

A usually interesting collection of research studies, anecdotes, and observations about animals, with the author believing strongly that animals are capable of enjoying life, rather than being devoid of feeling, and acting on instinct. Definitely some good food for thought, though the writing sucked, and everything was so 'fluffy' and agenda-laden, that I found it frustrating at times. But it convinced me that the double-priced eggs from the family farms are worth it!

[Cathy Unruh · Rating 5 out of 5]

Written largely from a scientific perspective, so one needs to be prepared for that: incredibly informative and possibly life-changing in the way we view our fellow creatures.

[Mark McTague · Rating 4 out of 5]

The author, a biologist by training and profession, cites numerous scientific studies over the previous decade (published in 2010) that have been shifting our understanding of the so-called "lower animals." These studies (and presumably even more in the nine years since publication) also make a strong case for changing our view of ourselves, particularly the conceit that places Homo sapiens at the apex of all life and the corollary idea, that all other animals exist only for our use. In carefully organized chapters, he shows how we are discovering, via scientific study, that animals think far more than we ever imagined, that they experience pain and apparent pleasure, that they are capable of altruistic action, and that many live highly social lives where their relationships to others of their kind, and even to other species, is best understood as communal. In short, they have lives as meaningful to them as our own are to us. Yet he does more than that. He links this changing awareness of other animals to our own ecological predicament - overpopulation and its attendant ills - climate change, resource depletion, environmental degradation, and accelerated species extinction. He then shows how two actions - refusing to eat meat (chicken, beef, pork, fish) and having one or no children - can, if done by enough people in the developed world, begin to reverse the damage that our ideology of growth and expanding consumption is doing to this spaceship that we live on. His prose is forceful but not shrill so that readers skeptical or unsure of this developing paradigm shift can consider the evidence dispassionately. Well worth the reading.

[George Ilsley · Rating 3 out of 5]

The inner lives of animals will not be a foreign concept to anyone who has ever spent much time with a variety of animals.

I'm a sympathetic reader but I did find myself disagreeing at times with positions taken by the author. He romanticizes the wonderful life of animals free to live in nature, and tends to emphasize how much animals cooperate and nurture each other. Sure they do all that, and they also eat each other.

Three stars because I struggled to finish the book. It became very "lecture-y" towards the end, describing how deliberately horrible people can be towards other life forms (again, all of that is unfortunately all too true). I could have managed quite well with only the first two parts of the book; the third did not really add anything, but repeated the same information and arguments.

I really enjoyed another book by this author about the vast world of flies, Super Fly: The Unexpected Lives of the World's Most Successful Insects, and next up is a deep dive into the equally vast world of fish (What a Fish Knows: The Inner Lives of Our Underwater Cousins).

[Diane Kuhn · Rating 5 out of 5]

Every life matters

If only for our own good but also for the sake of the planet, we need to absorb this information and appreciate that we, as humans, must treat all life with the respect it deserves. As a species, we can do much better. This book explains why and how we can.

[Denis Koltsov · Rating 2 out of 5]

I was hoping for a deep dive into inner lives of animals like the title suggests but instead got a bunch of random (sometimes interesting) animal facts and an environmental lecture. Books like these should have a warning label: "WILL TRY TO MAKE YOU VEGAN"

[Amelia Mulder · Rating 5 out of 5]

A most extraordinary book. Even though I've been vegan for quite a while, it's absolutely opened my eyes to stereotypes about animal intelligence and empathy that even I was still upholding, such as the inherent cruelty of nature, which Balcombe shows is not nearly as cut-throat as nature documentaries would lead us to believe. Animals actually have time to enjoy their lives, they have a purpose beyond feeding or entertaining us, and their lives are not just a constant battle for survival. Often their abilities, intelligence and senses go way beyond what we give them credit for, with human intelligence as the standard their worth is measured against. Balcombe shows that often we'd fall far short if our abilities and yes, even intelligence in reverse was measured against theirs.In the last chapter of his book, titled The New Humanity, Balcombe makes a case for veganism or at the very least, eating less meat, as he describes our growing meat habit, a consequence of growing human populations and their growing appetite for meat, as the “greatest direct threat we pose to the welfare of animals.” He goes on to demonstrate how what we eat has more environmental impact than how much we fly or drive, and how ill-prepared our planet is to feed meat to 7 billion humans.

[Kathi · Rating 3 out of 5]

I spent several hours with this author at a fundraiser where I purchased my (signed) copy of this book. While I like Jonathan a lot, I have mixed feelings about this book. Written at a college level, at times it had my eyes glaze and I had to re-read a paragraph to understand what he was trying to say. The author is well-traveled and many of the anecdotes are personal experience. This is well-researched with pages of notes at the end of the book. The final chapters are a bit "preachy" though.

Having spent two decades in the pet rescue field, I agree with so much of what he had to say (and I didn't need to research it).

[Susan · Rating 5 out of 5]

This book is a fantastic read. There is a great deal of scientific research but it is written in a manner that is friendly even for those who have little/no background in the natural sciences. At the same time, Balcombe also refrains from 'dumbing down' the work. For me, a couple of the chapters were extremely difficult to read as they describe the violence people do to animals and that people do to one another. However, these chapters were in no way gratuitous; they supported Balcombe's arguments and provided information important to his thesis.

[Sheila · Rating 4 out of 5]

Thought provoking read about animals emotional lives as well as their interactions with the same species and others, how we humans treat animals in the laboratory and factory farms. Nice ancedotes about interactions between animals. Not so pretty thoughts about humans' unethical and immoral actions towards animals.

[e.e. · Rating 5 out of 5]

I recommend this book. The main point for me was that the life of each individual animal matters to that individual animal. "Factory farming" is not a good thing. I'll try to become more conscious of my personal choices.

[Adrienne · Rating 4 out of 5]

It seemed like a lot of information was thrown together without really fleshing out the narrative. Many interesting studies that I would have liked expanded. Clearer, more concise arguments would have made this a stronger book.

[José Pedraza · Rating 5 out of 5]

Excelente libro. Aprendí mucho sobre comportamientos animales que son tan "humanos" que uno no creería verlos en animales.

Lo que más me gustó es el argumento que dice que los humanos no son superiores a los animales, cada uno tenemos nuestras cualidades que nos hacen especiales por igual.

[Nicole · Rating 1 out of 5]

Almost the same book as his "The Pleasureable Kingdom"

[Ed Dieringer · Rating 4 out of 5]

Really gets that ol' brain a tickin'

[Steph Bradford · Rating 4 out of 5]

This book is FASCINATING!!!!! I have learned SO MUCH about animal behavior. It reminds me of watching Mutual of Omaha's "Wild Kingdom" as a kid! I hope to use snippets with my students.

[Colleen · Rating 5 out of 5]

Excellent book!

[Anthony · Rating 4 out of 5]

excellent study (humane in best sense)
especially interesting to me for the (typically brilliant) Foreword by J.M.Coetzee

[Kevin Saldanha · Rating 5 out of 5]

Great book... confirms what I had mostly suspected.

[Delia · Rating 5 out of 5]

This one book taught me more about animals than any I have ever read