"As I was thinking about this, suddenly a goat with a prominent horn between its eyes came from the west, crossing the whole earth without touching the ground. It came toward the two-horned ram I had seen standing beside the canal and charged at it in great rage. I saw it attack the ram furiously, striking the ram and shattering its two horns. The ram was powerless to stand against it; the goat knocked it to the ground and trampled on it, and none could rescue the ram from its power. The goat became very great, but at the height of its power the large horn was broken off, and in its place four prominent horns grew up toward the four winds of heaven."
-Daniel 8:5-8
Around 200 years before Alexander the Great was born, the prophet Daniel foresaw his accomplishments. Like the violent goat in the vision, Alexander came from the west and conquered the two horns of Medo-Persia. While the Bible mentions a king named Darius, there was more than one Darius in history. The king of Persia at the time of Alexander was probably Darius III. Before the reign of Alexander's father Philip II, people in the Greek city-states looked down on the backward Macedonians of the northern hills. Then Philip raised an army like they had never seen and became a threat to their autonomy. Chief of all his opponents was the great orator Demosthenes, who valued republican principles and warned the citizens of Athens against the danger of unification with Macedon.
Philip's conquests began merging these city states into the Hellenistic League. At the battle of Chaeronea, he defeated the combined forces of Thebes and Athens. It is unknown how much his son Alexander actually fought in the battle, but he nevertheless received the loyalty of the army. Before Philip could finish his conquests, he was assassinated. Rumors of a conspiracy spread. Many believed Alexander may have orchestrated his father's death. Others believed that his controlling mother Olympias could have plotted against her husband after he took another wife. Olympias was an ambitious woman who was said to sleep with snakes in her bed.
Alexander finished the work of his father by suppressing rebellions and after destroying the city of Thebes, he sold its people into slavery. Yet he had a way acquiring the loyalty of fighting men, whether by fear or by charm. While he did not write down his battle tactics for us to read, his main strategy seemed to be taking big risks that could have big payoffs. Much of the military strategy was a product of his generals and the army that Philip had created. The Macedonians had developed 18-foot pikes and tight formations known as the phalanx. They had engineers who devised ways to fling heavy objects at great distances. These devices could be disassembled and carried through mountain passes.
Instead of becoming a dictator, Alexander tried to imitate the great Cyrus of Persia. He gave the Greeks a large amount of freedom in exchange for their loyalty. But rather than staying to rule his new empire, he grew tired of merely listening to the philosophies of his tutor Aristotle and made bigger plans. A score still had to be settled with Persia, and gradually the idea of merging the entire world into one empire entered his mind. But just how big was this world?
The campaign against the Persians began in 334 BC with the crossing of the Hellespont into Asia Minor. After defeating a mixed Persian army at the River Granicus, he proceeded east to Issus where the coast turned south toward Israel. The army of Darius pinned the Macedonians against the coast, but it scattered after Darius deserted his troops. Travelling south, the Macedonians built a land bridge to besiege the island fortress of Tyre. Then they went down into Egypt, where a city was built that bore Alexander's name (and eventually boasted a massive library). The Egyptians declared him to be their pharaoh and their god.
Returning to the east, the Macedonians met the army of Darius at the battle of Gaugamela, where he again fled the battlefield with his troops behind him. This allowed Alexander to enter the Persian cities of Babylon, Susa, and Persepolis- the last of which he burned to the ground. Darius then fled to Ecbatana, where he was murdered by his own men. After killing a usurper to the Persian throne, Alexander was by default the king of Macedonia, Greece, Egypt and Persia.
A pattern began to develop that would continue to the end of his life: Alexander would conquer a region, build Greek-style cities, leave part of his men behind, and move on. Eventually his army became less Greek and more Asian. To the Greek religious beliefs were added Persian beliefs. Alexander insisted on deciding every local court case himself and had trouble delegating authority. When he left one place, order tended to collapse behind him. The army adapted to new environments and took on new Eastern tactics. Veterans were left behind and replace with young Persian soldiers.
From Persia the Macedonians headed east around the bottom of the Caspian Sea. They began to wonder if their Greek mythology was wrong about the size of the earth. They had always believed there were mountain ranges to the east where the gods lived, and they had to find them. As the Macedonians made their way northeast through the Khyber Pass they kept building more Alexandrias. One of these Alexandrias became Kandahar, Afghanistan. They encountered great horse archers of the Parthian and Bactrian empires. They saw the largest mountains they had ever seen: the mountains known to us as the Himalayas (but there were no gods living there). Leaving a garrison at Samarkand, they crossed the River of the Sands, fought the Scythian army, and besieged the fortress at Sogdiana.
It was at Sogdiana that Alexander took a wife. The fort had high walls that seemed impregnable. A competition with prize money was held to see which of the soldiers could scale the walls the fastest. When climbers made it to the top by using iron tent pegs and ropes, they managed to take the city. A local woman named Roxana came through the door, and Alexander took her as his wife. Whether she was happy is hard to know. She was not the first women he had loved with and she would not be the last. Some modern historians speculate that Alexander was gay. This is a possibility since Greek sexuality was a messy business. Yet it is safe to say that he was more interested in exploration and conquest than sex. Gradually, his lifestyle and responsibilities began to take a toll on his mind. He loved to drink and would sleep late. When a disagreement arose with his companions and generals, he had several of them murdered. The army by then looked nothing like it had at the beginning, and he gradually lost the loyalty of his men.
There was another empire that had yet to be discovered: the empire across the great Indus river. Envoys of friendship were sent by the rajah of Northern India, and the wonders the Macedonians saw before them rivaled even the Persian empire. Most of them had never seen elephants before, and they began hunting and collecting them. After discovering that the enemies of these Indians were the Paurava tribe, another major battle was waged on the Jhelum River against the Pauravan army mounted on elephants. The phalanx barely managed to survive. During the battle, Alexander’s favorite horse Bucephalus was killed beneath him.
It was after this battle that his men mutinied. Ten years of constant conquest was too much. At home, Macedonian society was falling apart, and cities they had already conquered were rebelling again. While Alexander allowed anyone who wanted to leave to do so, it was not enough. They finally persuaded him to end his conquests and head home. But their leader didn't know what to do with himself at this point- everything so far had been a constant thrill of new exploration. On the way back to Babylon, his closest friend Hephastian died, and he grieved deeply. One group of men was sent down the Indus River to the Indian Ocean, and another group marched on land up the coast. An invasion of Arabia was planned, but it never came to pass. The bouts of drinking continued, and one day Alexander went for a swim. Somewhere in the process he contracted what is believed to be malaria and died. The prophecies in the book of Daniel continued to be fulfilled. No plan had been made for Alexander's successor, and there was conflict between 4 of his generals: Ptolemy, Seleucus, Lysimachus, and Cassander. These four horns and their dynasties divided up his empire for themselves.
The results of his exploits were around 20 cities built and multiple cities named after him. The once separate European and Asian societies merged into a massive Eurasian society larger than the world had never seen. Even when the Roman Empire tried to conquer the East, they had several failed attempts- one of those was the Battle of Carrhae. It took centuries for anyone to match Alexander's conquests. Yet despite conquering the known world, he could not conquer himself. No matter how much was achieved, he had only wanted more. He came from the west and crossed the whole earth without settling down, going home, or as the book of Daniel put it: "touching the ground."