Control: The Dark History and Troubling Present of Eugenics

by Adam Rutherford

How did an obscure academic idea pave the way to the Holocaust within just fifty years? Control is a book about eugenics, what geneticist Adam Rutherford calls "a defining idea of the twentieth century." Inspired by Darwin's ideas about evolution, eugenics arose in Victorian England as a theory for improving the British population, and quickly spread to America, where it was embraced by presidents, funded by Gilded Age monopolists, and enshrined into racist American laws that became the ideological cornerstone of the Third Reich. Despite this horrific legacy, eugenics looms large today as the advances in genetics in the last thirty years—from the sequencing of the human genome to modern gene editing techniques—have brought the idea of population purification back into the mainstream. Eugenics has "a short history, but a long past," Rutherford writes. The first half of Control is the history of an idea, from its roots in key philosophical texts of the classical world all the way into their genocidal enactment in the twentieth century. The second part of the book explores how eugenics operates today, as part of our language and culture, as part of current political and racial discussions, and as an eternal temptation to powerful people who wish to improve society through reproductive control. With disarming wit and scientific precision, Rutherford explains why eugenics still figures prominently in the twenty-first century, despite its genocidal past. And he confronts insidious recurring questions—did eugenics work in Nazi Germany? And could it work today?—revealing the intellectual bankruptcy of the idea, and the scientific impossibility of its realization.

Genres: Nonfiction, History, Science, Politics, Sociology, Race, Eugenics

288 pages, Hardcover

First published February 3, 2022

About the author

Adam David Rutherford is a British geneticist, author, and broadcaster. He was an audio-visual content editor for the journal Nature for a decade, is a frequent contributor to the newspaper The Guardian, hosts the BBC Radio 4 programme Inside Science, has produced several science documentaries and has published books related to genetics and the origin of life.

Reviews

[Audrey · Rating 5 out of 5]

Full disclosure: I am friends with the author so I am a little biased. But hey, my review. I am a scientist and my fields of research are in genetics (genomics) and anthropology. This book is about the history of eugenics and of course this involves Francis Galton, Karl Pearson, and Ronald Fisher. Essentially, modern human genetics was basically invented by these three, and they came up with the statistical methods that are so fundamental in the life sciences. These statistical concepts and tests that we (life scientists) all use - standard deviation, regression, correlation, t-tests, ANOVA, etc were all invented to justify eugenics agendas of how humans=farm animals.

Francis Galton wrote in the 1870s: "I argue that, as a new race can be obtained in animals and plants, and can be raised to so great a degree of purity that it will maintain itself, with moderate care in preventing the more faulty members of the flock from breeding, so a race of gifted men might be obtained, under exactly similar conditions."

What a wanker.

Anyway Adam is a gifted, lively writer and the science is A+ and communicated clearly. This is a very succinct book about the early history of eugenics, its hideous legacy, and whether or not it would actually "work" (short answer: no).

[Michael Perkins · Rating 4 out of 5]

article about the book....

https://www.theguardian.com/books/202...

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In terms of the main players, it's always been about wealthy White elites controlling everyone else, including their biology.

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“Today the commercial ancestry market is worth billions and relies on the weak supposition that the composition of your DNA will reveal the identities of your forbears in time and space. It’s often driven by romantic and sentimental urges to belong to a tribe of Vikings, Anglo-Saxons, or other noble warriors. But it’s really just wafty bullshit. What modern genetics has shown unequivocally is that the real story of humankind is continuous mixing. There is no pure race or tribe.”

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"If I had my way, I would build a lethal chamber as big as the Crystal Palace, with a military band playing softly, and a Cinematograph working brightly; then I’d go out in the back streets and main streets and bring them in, all the sick, the halt, and the maimed; I would lead them gently, and they would smile me a weary thanks; and the band would softly bubble out the ‘Hallelujah Chorus’.

-D.H. Lawrence, 1908

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The nightmare realized....

https://www.theglobalist.com/seven-bi...

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The dark side of Churchill...

"I do not admit for instance, that a great wrong has been done to the Red Indians of America or the black people of Australia. I do not admit that a wrong has been done to these people by the fact that a stronger race, a higher-grade race, a more worldly wise race to put it that way, has come in and taken their place."

"I hate people with slit eyes and pigtails. I don't like the look of them or the smell of them"

===========

My home state is culpable.

The first president of Stanford, David Starr Jordan, founded a eugenics society and eugenic practices were still happening not so long ago....

https://www.sfgate.com/opinion/articl...

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The unwelcome revival of "race science"

https://www.theguardian.com/news/2018...

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Toward the end, the author talks about the promise and perils of gene editing.

The Brave New World is on the horizon.

[Laura Rogers · Rating 4 out of 5]

The field of eugenics dates back to Darwin and Galton and the concept of selective breeding. It became a "science" with advances in statistical measurement and analysis. It was widely misused to justify scientifically and morally reprehensible actions in the early 1900's, most notably in Hitler's search for ethnic purity. Less well known are the programs in Europe, the United States and around the world that used eugenics as the justification for widespread institutionalization and sterilization of those considered unfit.

Scientific advancements in gene editing have placed the topic back on the front burner. In Conrol, Adam Rutherford examines the allure of reproductive control while succinctly laying out why the idea is not only inherently dangerous but scientifically impossible. Unfortunately, that won't stop rogue labs and scientists from ignoring the scientific, legal, ethical, political, and moral issues for their own ends and at some point science pundits could be trotted out to justify misguided political and legal actions.

It is my view that our scientific knowledge has outstripped our ability to fully understand the ramifications of tinkering with our genetic building blocks and it behooves us to arm ourselves with as much knowledge as possible. Rutherford's Control is a good place to start.

[Raluca Oana · Rating 5 out of 5]

Această carte mi-a plăcut foarte mult, pentru că am găsit date despre genetică, domeniu cu care lucrez și eu în mare parte.

O carte plină de informații utile, despre modul prin care unele personalități ale vremii anterioare au încercat să își însușească rolul de “atotputernici” care pot să facă exact ce le taie capul.

Eugenia - e acea disciplină care studiază aplicarea practică a biologiei eredității în ameliorarea genetică a individului.

Mai pe înțelesul tuturor, utilizarea geneticii sau a tehnicilor biologice asupra eredității (copii cu sindrom Down sau diferite anomalii) cu scopul de a le înlătura.

Acest subiect este unul destul de greu de abordat, deoarece această eugenie a fost practicată în perioada războaielor. Și cel mai cunoscut act de eugenie este bineînțeles cel făcut de Hitler în perioada Holocaustului.

În acea perioadă, oamenii care acceptau termenul de eugenie, considerau că persoanele care aveau defecte fizice (diferite boli, sindroame sau anomalii), defecte mentale (etichetându-i drept imbecili, inculți), lipsa unor membre, inteligență redusă, săraci, nu ar avea dreptul să se reproducă, datorită faptului că aceste trăsături se vor transmite generațiilor viitoare, rezultând copiii cu aceleași defecte. Astfel că, îi obligau să se sterilizeze. Iar dacă se întâmpla ca două persoane să facă un copil cu dizabilități, acesta era automat omorât.

Destul de greu de acceptat acest lucru, dar din păcate asta s-a întâmplat. Însă, odată cu terminarea Holocaustului, această eugenie s-a ameliorat, dar să nu credeți că în zilele noastre nu sunt oameni care să nu susțină eugenia. Din păcate există oameni de genul.

Mi-a plăcut enorm de mult cartea, m-a făcut să mă înfurii atunci când citeam ororile prin care erau supuși să treacă, dar în același timp, mi-a plăcut să aflu informații despre acest subiect. Te tine în priză, cum s-ar spune.

Merită! 🫶🏻

5/5 ⭐️

[Evie · Rating 5 out of 5]

read this months ago and forgot to add…

You hear the word eugenics and immediately think about the Nazis, but I didn’t realise how much the eugenic movement was spearheaded by British and American individuals/societies and adopted into Nuremberg laws/final solution etc.

Also interesting how mainstream eugenic thought was in the UK, and to hear about left wing proponents too (not surprised by Churchill but Beveridge!?).

Rutherfords writing is always brilliant. He targets the science while focussing on the ethics in a perfect manifesto on the intrinsic value of all people. His explanation of complex traits makes it easy to step through why eugenics makes no sense by targeting common misconceptions about genetics (e.g why we couldn’t just ‘select’ for greater intelligence even if we wanted to).

[Tony · Rating 2 out of 5]

It is not surprising that Rutherford is a working geneticist.  The sections of this book that deal with the science of eugenics are brilliant.  Unfortunately, the rest of Control does not measure up.  Overall, the work reads like a 250+ page op-ed article railing against the philosophy and use of eugenics.  Virtually every page of Control reiterates one of these arguments.  While my stance on eugenics is fairly similar to the author's, I do not enjoy works that tell me what to think and have an even less favorable view of publications--like this one--that attempt to shove certain principles down my throat.  I truly wonder whether the title refers to the aspirations of eugenicists or to the influence Rutherford attempts to exert over his readers.     

[Sabin · Rating 4 out of 5]

Eugenics was all the rage in the first half of the 20th century, until it wasn’t any more. This book purports to tell us what it is, what it isn't and how it came to be such a dominant force in shaping the policies of that time.

The author does a wonderful job in recounting the history of this movement, beginning with its ancient predecessors in Greece, and takes us all the way up to present day attempts at controlling the evolution of the human race. Another thing Rutherford does well is making a distinction between ethical uses of the science of genetics and its unethical uses, past, present and future possibilities.

The book is aimed at the broadest audience possible. It's short and it deals with a huge amount of material very efficiently. Rutherford is very good at keeping his facts tidy and well organised and keeps his essay diligently on topic. Thankfully, the main doctrine of eugenics and its misuse are easy to debunk since, in hindsight, all of the eugenics policies implemented in different countries like the USA or Nazi Germany, which were conceived as aids for the betterment of mankind, have had zero or negative effects on their target population. This is the best part of the book.

The most interesting part of the book is the second, which deals with the application of current scientific research in genetics (the de facto child of the eugenics movement) to screening the DNA of embryos for genetic disorders like Down – currently a universally accepted medical practice, to the genetic screening and engineering of embryos for specific genes, especially aimed at increasing intelligence. In short, of the last two, the first approach brings statistically lower gains to IQ than tweaking some environmental variables, while the second one is currently illegal and extremely dangerous with the currently available technology.

I would have liked to read more about hypothetical scenarios and their plausibility. However, the author does not extend any philosophical argument beyond its mere acknowledgement in his text, although he vaguely draws near to a kind of conservative humanism in the sense that human life is valuable, even if it's genetic makeup is flawed, but that parents are free to decide if they want to keep a pregnancy when they find out that the baby will be born with an incurable, debilitating, genetically determined syndrome like Down.

So this is a book that plays it safe from most every point of view. The subtitle is a bit clickbaity, in the sense that it promises a lot more than it delivers. Eugenics got a lot of stuff wrong at first, like any science, and the worst part is that people were using it to drive social policies that, as Rutherford demonstrates, helped absolutely nothing and no one. The name fell out of favour after the war, and by 1970-1980 all eugenics departments became genetics departments. And they continue to try to understand the relationship between genes and the environment in the makeup of a human. His high-level conclusion to what determines the outcome of specific traits is that it’s complex, it depends on a case by case basis and genetics is in very few cases the sole determinant of a specific condition.

The “troubling present“ part is more an indeterminate foggy and conficing present, where research is being made to improve the human genome and this would allow rich people to raise their kids as a new breed of genetically enhanced humans. The author talks about CRISPR, the most advanced and most precise technology available for gene editing and shows that, in its current state of development, it is not yet as precise as it needs to be, although he allows for the caveat that it may reach that precision in the future. (currently gene modifications may still scramble a few letters in their mutations and any change which is not exact would create a completely unknown, unstudied, dangerous and potentially lethal variant)

This is a great book for the general public, full of facts and figures, but told in a very appealing style. It does many things right, linking important historical characters with their views and their times, but also discussing their legacy, keeps the whole history concise and interesting and also throws in a few introductory scientific notions for genetics. I don’t remember hearing about other books on the subject in the audiobook, so I guess people interested in diving deeper in the subject have to do a bit of research on their own.

[Rhiannon Bevan · Rating 5 out of 5]

"This famous guy revolutionised genetics and in doing so saved countless lives"
:)
"So he could advocate sterilising the mentally ill and disabled"
:(

On loop for 250 pages

[Anna Sinclair · Rating 4 out of 5]

This book is amazing and has taught me a lot. I knew of some of the history of Eugenics in Great Britain and America but this book opened my eyes. Eugenics is awful, it’s awful because it is an idea of the rich, powerful and narcissistic.

It’s also made me self-reflect on my attitude towards equality and diversity. Thinking about how variety brings so much value to life. How we need to tackle the social injustices that make people appear “unhelpful”. Especially when talking about disability and how to empower others.

I recently watched a documentary about how Auschwitz came to exist and how close society is to teetering over that point again if we view people as groups and “others”.

Inclusion and valuing more than just physical and mental health is so important. Empathy and compassion cannot be bred. Healthy relationships are not in the genetics of an individual.

Also the fact that we still don’t fully understand genetics is fascinating. The thought that not a single gene causes only one trait but is a complex and intricate network which impacts on a person is amazing.

Human bodies are amazing, I already know this but human bodies ARE AMAZING! The biggest take away from this book for me is how compassion, empathy and being able to create a society where everyone can access education, healthcare, social care and a loving support network is the best way to make humans into a better version of themselves.

[Becky · Rating 5 out of 5]

If you haven't read Rutherford, then I strongly urge you to do so.

This is one of his shorter works looking at the history and implications of eugenics. Packed full of detail, lightly witty where appropriate, and deadly serious when required. This is a fascinating read.

[Rob Thompson · Rating 4 out of 5]

Control: The Dark History and Troubling Present of Eugenics is a well-written and thought-provoking book that delves into the disturbing history of eugenics and its continued influence on contemporary society.

Adam Rutherford does an excellent job of tracing the origins of eugenics from its early roots in the late 19th and early 20th centuries to its horrific implementation in Nazi Germany and the United States. He clearly explains the ideas behind eugenics and the ways in which it was used to justify discrimination and violence against certain groups of people.

One of the most disturbing aspects of the book is the way in which eugenics was used to justify forced sterilization and other forms of medical experimentation on marginalized groups, such as people with disabilities and Indigenous communities. These practices were not only unethical but also deeply harmful and have had long-lasting consequences for the individuals and communities affected.

Despite the well-documented history of eugenics and its devastating impact, Rutherford also explores the ways in which these ideas have continued to influence contemporary society. He discusses the ongoing debate over genetic engineering and the potential risks and benefits of this technology, as well as the ethical considerations that must be considered.

Overall, Control: The Dark History and Troubling Present of Eugenics is a thought-provoking and important read that sheds light on the disturbing history and ongoing influence of eugenics. It is a must-read for anyone interested in the intersection of science, ethics, and social justice.

I listened to the BBC Radio version of the book:
Bad Blood: The Story of Eugenics.

[Kenny · Rating 4 out of 5]

This chap communicates The Science well. And he misspelled the word spelling in a sentence about spelling mistakes, which is very good scientist humour.

[Iona Sharma]

Maybe my last book of 2022 in which case it's kind of a depressing note to go out on, but it's actually a very readable, thoughtful book. Rutherford (who I know mostly from the Radio 4 podcast he shares with Hannah Fry, The Curious Cases of Rutherford and Fry) clearly knows the subject inside-out and back-to-front. As well as being a specialist in human genetics generally, he's a geneticist at UCL, which was the British centre for eugenics and its promulgation; the modern faculty of biology is a direct descendant of the eugenics research labs. The book isn't history or biology but a mix of both and it held my attention throughout.

Also, the footnotes! mostly scholarly, occasionally hilarious.

[Joe · Rating 2 out of 5]

While a decent history of a horrible area used in the creation of a fascinating scientific discipline. I just can't get behind this book. It was very skewed by the author's bias and very one dimensional. It acted like it was deep but that was just a masquerade of superficial intellectualism. There's got to be better historical analysis on the subject.... right? 3.5/10 for providing some other interesting historical titles to look into.

[Paul · Rating 3 out of 5]

According to the author everyone advocating eugenics is a racist, except when applied in very specific manner that the author approves of (for example aborting down syndrome children).

I really don't like books that go over long lists of who's a racist and who's not for no real benefit. Yes, I know, science stands on the shoulders of giant racists. Pity I won't be able to read a book by someone in 100 years time writing about this author and inevitably concluding he was a racist.

[boxer_dogs_dance · Rating 3 out of 5]

This book promises more than it delivers. The history is excellent and interesting. The discussion of the present doesn't match the title and is very general.

[Jessica · Rating 4 out of 5]

3.5 rounded up!

[Cherise · Rating 5 out of 5]

If part one is an interesting history, "Part Two: Same As it Ever Was" should be required reading for the average person. Rutherford is addressing the science of genetics in particular, but I think we can all use the reality check of how science evolves over time and how little we actually know at any one point.

[Sarah Clement · Rating 5 out of 5]

A fascinating summary of the past and present promotion and use of eugenics (and some science), primarily in the US, UK, and Australia. Rutherford does a great job of explaining complex scientific ideas as well as exploring tricky ethical issues in a nuanced way. I learned a lot from this book, and it certainly expanded my view on what eugenics is and the multitude of ways it's been used, and is still being used today. He also does a good job of navigating the debates around historical figures in science and public life who adopted ideas from eugenics, and does well to point out our inconsistent approach in the way we react to these legacies.

[Nicole Simovski · Rating 4 out of 5]

Solid book.Two parts: the history of eugenics until the fall of nazi German and the present state of genetics and eugenic thinking since. Short read offering good overview in each part but not overly detailed.

[William Rigby · Rating 4 out of 5]

Something I think everyone should read.

A colleague of mine very kindly reccomended this book to me a few months ago and at long last I have gotten around to reading it. And I am pleased to say that it was an excellent reccomendation.

Eugenics is a topic that I believe most associate with the Nazis. I think that is evidenced by Rutherford himself stating the same thing. It is a concept that was a staple principle of the Nazi regieme and ideology, and was founded on the bunk pseudo-science that a pure master race could be created. This was of course not only most likley impossible but also would have costed and did cost the lives of millions of people unlucky enough to be labeled "deffective" or any other moniker that the Nazis despised.

This book delves into the deep and troubling past of Eugenics and how its founders and followers believed they could mould society to their whims by eradicating "undesirables" and replaces them with pure blooded folk. However, as Rutherford expertly conveys, their "science" was often based off poor or made up evidence and was deeply racist and misogynistic which ultimatley blinded their ability to discern anything that did not agree with their findings.

Eugenics is rearing its ugly head again, with political commenators and whack jobs on X under the supervision of their overlord Elon, continuing the cycle of the myth that anyone who isn't white is an inbred, backwards savage. And I think this book is one of many that can set the record straight about the realities of science and of the wider world. Rutherford makes some key points throughout this book that will remain with me long after turning its final page.

I'd reccomend all to give this a read.

[Emma Hinkle · Rating 4 out of 5]

As a geneticist I am very interested in the history of eugenics and worrying about the potential of it happening in the future. Adam Rutherford address both of these topics very well in his most recent book.

The first part of the book focuses on the history of eugenics. I had not realized the extent to which eugenics was present in the America before WWII and how many of the 'greats' in genetics subscribed to eugenics. Throughout this discourse, I appreciated that Rutherford emphasizes that we can't throw out the work of everyone who had these views: "The past is a dirty place, its protagonists are merely people - evil, genius, and everything in between. We cannot and should not abandon no trash the scientific works of Galton, Fisher, Pearson, Jordan, Watson and the many others on whose scientific shoulders we stand."

The second part of the book hypothesizes as to what it could look like in the future and what to watch out for. He really highlights that "one thing we do know about human genetics with absolute confidence is how little we know." Thus, it will be difficult to create 'designer babies' and the like because genetics and the human body is very complicated (which I can attest to).

Overall, this a great read for those interested in the history of science and who want to learn more about eugenics and its impact.

[SusyG · Rating 5 out of 5]

Questo saggio mi è piaciuto tantissimo e Adam Rutherford si riconferma uno dei miei saggisti preferiti ✨ Il tema dell'eugenetica è qualcosa che ogni tanto rispunta per portare spesso a dibattiti accesi. In questo libro Rutherford parla, nella prima parte, della storia dell'eugenetica, partendo dal Regno Unito (dove è nata) per poi toccare gli USA e la Germania nazista. Nella seconda tocca i tempi più recenti, con lo studio del genoma, delle nuove tecniche pre natali per l'individuazione di malattie ma anche degli errori di scienziati che non hanno perso la mentalità del secolo scorso sulla selezione delle persone. La scrittura è scorrevole e forse solo la parte più scientifica sul finale può essere un pochino ostica, ma per il resto è accessibilissima come lettura 👌🏻 È un tema che dovremmo tenere d'occhio perché purtroppo c'è chi ne parla in maniera pericolosa ancora oggi.

[A · Rating 5 out of 5]

This is a very informative history of the policies of eugenics in the United States, exactly what I was looking for. It includes discussion of the philosophies that surrounded how eugenics practices became accepted in the mainstream, and how these policies and philosophies influenced and were a foundation for the atrocities committed in the holocaust.

I do wish that the book could have gotten a little more personal. While very informative, it was also often a rather dry read, and personally I appreciate when non-fiction will weave in personal histories of real individuals who lived through and were impacted by the topic discussed. I feel it can make the information "stick" better, and also paint an even more vivid picture of the history being discussed. But that's a preference.

[Kirsten · Rating 4 out of 5]

I always enjoy Adam Rutherford and his clear, direct way of speaking about a very complicated topic.  I have a mixed reaction to this book.  On the one hand I think overall it's easy to read, explanatory but not labored, and wraps up with an argument summary I very much agree with.  On the second hand, it took me a long time to read, mostly because I stopped to think very often; about other things I've read, about how much I dislike Galton, or to look up stories I remember or more about certain actors in these historical events. And then on a third hand, I wonder if it could have been more... different.  I don't know, I think this final argument could have been more strongly supported by more examples, but that's not really the book he was writing; but if the focus is on this historical explanation then maybe that needed to be a bit more in depth... but would people read that, and can you do that without the argument? I'm not sure.  
Anyway, it's worth reading and it's important and because it's Rutherford, it's very readable and occasionally funny. 

[Shrike58 · Rating 4 out of 5]

If you're concerned that in picking up this book you're going to be subjected to a polemic, rest assured, you are. Don't worry though, it'll mostly be good for you. This is as Rutherford first takes you through the dubious history of Eugenics, its rise and fall as a philosophy, the international links between the enthusiasts of the concept, and how it produced bad social policy before that fall. Rutherford dryly notes that the resulting mess is still being cleaned up.

This takes you to the "present" dealt with in the second half of this work, as Rutherford considers how advances in genetic science, and the technology for manipulating genes, have led to people with more power than sense speculating on whether one could now make good on the "promise" of Eugenics. As a working geneticist Rutherford is highly dubious about the whole notion, emphasizing that the study of genetics in general, and human genetics in particular, merely serves to illustrate how little we do know, particularly when one gets into dealing health conditions that are influenced by dozens of genes. Never mind the vast impact of actually existing in a given environment conditions the expression of genetic heritage. Much of this I was already aware of, having picked it up by broad reading, but Rutherford ties all these issues together with a good bit of flair. As always, the sad thing is that the people who really do need to read this book probably won't be; or they'll be trying to get it banned because it doesn't respect their pet prejudices.

[Eric Sullenberger · Rating 3 out of 5]

Eugenics in any form is wrong. That much is obvious and so I only learned details and not really much that is new. However, it is unbelievable the twists, turns, and moral compromises that people will make to justify abortion. There were also times where he contradicts himself and his assertion that "everything is heritable" [inherited through genetics]. I don't believe that abortion is okay and I think there are plenty of things that are environmental & nurture instead of nature.

[Simon Tudge · Rating 4 out of 5]

Always a joy to read Mr Rutherford, even when he's writting about something as dark as eugenics.

We can never hope to persuade by name calling or straw manung, but Rutherford writes in a fair an balanced way, a way that represents the opinions of those who would disagree with him in a fair way. He ultimately loops back to disect and demolish these horrible ideas, but in a way that I feel stands a hope of persuading at least a slither of people to a more reasonable stand point.

Bravo.

[Allison Clough · Rating 5 out of 5]

Intelligent and passionate, glad the author read it himself. Very accessible and very interesting, even though I knew some of the stuff about Galton. I feel like I now have a good understanding of the topic.

[Julia Gibbs · Rating 5 out of 5]

Had to read for a class, what an insane and thoughtful read.
Cannot include all information in the review, but if you want any political, scientific and ethical notes on Eugenics practices for any reason, absolutely give it a go.
“All science is political” - Adam Rutherford