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Studies in Emotion and Social Interaction
Emotional Contagion
When people are in a certain mood, whether elated or depressed, that mood is often communicated to others. When we are talking to someone who is depressed it may make us feel depressed, whereas if we talk to someone who is feeling self-confident and buoyant we are likely to feel good about ourselves. This phenomenon, known as emotional contagion, is identified here, and compelling evidence for its effects is offered from a variety of disciplines--social and developmental psychology, history, cross-cultural psychology, experimental psychology, and psychopathology. The authors propose a simple mechanism to account for the process of contagion. They argue that people, in their everyday encounters, tend automatically and continuously to synchronize with the facial expressions, voices, postures, movements, and instrumental emotional behaviors of others. Emotional experiences are affected, moment-to-moment, by the feedback from such mimicry. In a series of orderly chapters, the authors provide observational and laboratory evidence to support their propositions. They then offer practical suggestions for clinical psychologists, physicians, husbands and wives, parents, and professionals who wish to become better at shaping the emotional tone of social encounters.
252 pages, Hardcover
First published September 1, 1993
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Displaying 1 - 13 of 13 reviews
November 27, 2011
I used this book in my undergraduate study on emotions and empathy. I loved it! If anyone is interested in the study of emotions this is a great place to start.
May 2, 2017
“The virus of distress,” and other emotional contagions
I read a lot of books about evolutionary psychology and cognitive science – driven, I suppose, by a (still unfulfilled) desire to better understand why humans do the things we do. In many of those books, I came across references to Emotional Contagion (by Elaine Hatfield, John T. Cacioppo and Richard L. Rapson) as a groundbreaking work fundamental to understanding the mysterious inner workings of the brain and how that translates into behaviors and actions.
The book, written by eminent researchers, looks at emotions: what they are, what purpose they serve and how, and why, they seem to be so easily transferred from person to person. It was written in 1994, well before the current trend of using brain mapping and neural hot spots to justify just about everything (and probably prematurely). Rather, the authors use reams of good old-fashioned psychological testing to lay out a strong and compelling argument:
1) Humans are hard-wired to be attuned and responsive to the emotional states of others. (It’s one of the reasons we’re able to collaborate successfully on everything from hunting wooly mammoths to building skyscrapers, and to not kill each other over misunderstandings.)
2) Because of all the finely tuned cognitive instrumentation we’re packing, we’re highly susceptible to being overly influenced by inputs from others, and even misled by our own faulty interpretations of their emotional states. (It’s far better to be overly responsive to perceived rage, for example, than to be blissfully ignorant and get an obsidian shiv in the back.)
One of the anchor arguments involves our tendency to mimic others, and to be influenced by the mimicry of others in return: “…primitive emotional contagion occurs via the continuous feedback people receive from interactional mimicry and synchrony.” Because “…people are attempting to communicate solidarity and involvement when they mimic others’ postures.”
We mimic because we want to quickly convey understanding, empathy, interest and the fact that we don’t pose a threat. “We generally mimic the behavior of those to whom we feel close, and feel closer to those who mimic our behavior.” In one fascinating study, they found that “… in face-to-face encounters the listeners almost always showed reflection symmetry: when the storyteller leaned right, they leaned left.”
Turns out humans are like mirrors that reflect the inputs we receive, and also like radios, forever tuned in to the emotional signals of others (and broadcasting our own information), signals that ultimately influence our own emotional states, not the least of which is because “Collective emotional outbursts may bring drama and excitement into otherwise monotonous lives.” Not only are we susceptible to the emotional states of others, we may actively seek it out. We’re like radio mirrors with drama magnets.
That leads to a bit of a depressing close that, remember, was written more than 20 years ago: “Equally suggestive is the contagion that may occur in larger social interactions. Groups of individuals often appear to catch the emotions of others, whether it be laughter in a movie theater or hatred in a lynch mob. Did Hitler employ contagion in stirring up the crowds with his inflammatory oratory? Would it be possible for someone trained in the art of emotional contagion to exert a similar influence? Do totalitarian regimes or religious revival meetings or antiwar (or prowar) or prochoice (or antiabortion) rallies exploit the phenomena?”
That certainly may in part explain the current divisive and vitriolic political environment we’re mired in, with emotions easily stirred up and magnified and passed along like a horrible virus of anger.
It’s a fascinating book and well worth the read.
I read a lot of books about evolutionary psychology and cognitive science – driven, I suppose, by a (still unfulfilled) desire to better understand why humans do the things we do. In many of those books, I came across references to Emotional Contagion (by Elaine Hatfield, John T. Cacioppo and Richard L. Rapson) as a groundbreaking work fundamental to understanding the mysterious inner workings of the brain and how that translates into behaviors and actions.
The book, written by eminent researchers, looks at emotions: what they are, what purpose they serve and how, and why, they seem to be so easily transferred from person to person. It was written in 1994, well before the current trend of using brain mapping and neural hot spots to justify just about everything (and probably prematurely). Rather, the authors use reams of good old-fashioned psychological testing to lay out a strong and compelling argument:
1) Humans are hard-wired to be attuned and responsive to the emotional states of others. (It’s one of the reasons we’re able to collaborate successfully on everything from hunting wooly mammoths to building skyscrapers, and to not kill each other over misunderstandings.)
2) Because of all the finely tuned cognitive instrumentation we’re packing, we’re highly susceptible to being overly influenced by inputs from others, and even misled by our own faulty interpretations of their emotional states. (It’s far better to be overly responsive to perceived rage, for example, than to be blissfully ignorant and get an obsidian shiv in the back.)
One of the anchor arguments involves our tendency to mimic others, and to be influenced by the mimicry of others in return: “…primitive emotional contagion occurs via the continuous feedback people receive from interactional mimicry and synchrony.” Because “…people are attempting to communicate solidarity and involvement when they mimic others’ postures.”
We mimic because we want to quickly convey understanding, empathy, interest and the fact that we don’t pose a threat. “We generally mimic the behavior of those to whom we feel close, and feel closer to those who mimic our behavior.” In one fascinating study, they found that “… in face-to-face encounters the listeners almost always showed reflection symmetry: when the storyteller leaned right, they leaned left.”
Turns out humans are like mirrors that reflect the inputs we receive, and also like radios, forever tuned in to the emotional signals of others (and broadcasting our own information), signals that ultimately influence our own emotional states, not the least of which is because “Collective emotional outbursts may bring drama and excitement into otherwise monotonous lives.” Not only are we susceptible to the emotional states of others, we may actively seek it out. We’re like radio mirrors with drama magnets.
That leads to a bit of a depressing close that, remember, was written more than 20 years ago: “Equally suggestive is the contagion that may occur in larger social interactions. Groups of individuals often appear to catch the emotions of others, whether it be laughter in a movie theater or hatred in a lynch mob. Did Hitler employ contagion in stirring up the crowds with his inflammatory oratory? Would it be possible for someone trained in the art of emotional contagion to exert a similar influence? Do totalitarian regimes or religious revival meetings or antiwar (or prowar) or prochoice (or antiabortion) rallies exploit the phenomena?”
That certainly may in part explain the current divisive and vitriolic political environment we’re mired in, with emotions easily stirred up and magnified and passed along like a horrible virus of anger.
It’s a fascinating book and well worth the read.
September 23, 2021
I read this book as "emotional contagion" was the topic given for CQE (Comprehensive Qualifying Examination). That time hardly two research papers were available on this topic in top journals.
This book saved me from the trouble.
I remember printing a copy and literary reading & analyzing it line-by-line.
I intend to go back and read this once quickly - as I remember there are intersting things about emotional contagion. For example: When a man and woman meets in the bar and intending to date, how their emotions are transferred, how their body signals it. It was probably ethnographical observation, but it was amazing...
Hope will read it sooon again and will write detail summary/review of it.
This book saved me from the trouble.
I remember printing a copy and literary reading & analyzing it line-by-line.
I intend to go back and read this once quickly - as I remember there are intersting things about emotional contagion. For example: When a man and woman meets in the bar and intending to date, how their emotions are transferred, how their body signals it. It was probably ethnographical observation, but it was amazing...
Hope will read it sooon again and will write detail summary/review of it.
December 8, 2015
An academic, yet admirably lucid exploration of how people process and unconsciously respond to the emotions of others. An essential read for anyone in a helping profession, but also an interesting read for anyone wanting to learn more about human emotional social interactions.
August 4, 2022
A very informative title, even though it is beginning to show its age. It was breakthrough research at the time and has been widely cited by others.
An interesting set of research studies and hypotheses based on the phenomenon of social contagion. I found this particularly enlightening with regard to my own field of work in psychological forensics and police interviewing. Measures of emotional arousal were conducted by measuring skin conductance, facial mimicry via electromyographic recordings, and clinical observations of body postures.
Emotional contagion and reception are largely characterized by facial expression (microexpressions) Voice (pitch, range, timbre), and kinesthetic elements such as balance posture and movement. Much as with the famous lie detector or polygraph tests, so too do the researchers, behind this title, relied upon skin conductance pulse, heartbeat, and transpiration to measure physiological variations in comportment via the autonomic nervous system (ANS).
Neurobiological expression is well detailed in explaining the interaction of the afferent response through stimulus perception through to and including the efferent response and subsequent reaction. The extrapyramidal system is examined and the authors underscore how this portion of the motor network causes involuntary reactions. It is called extrapyramidal in order to distinguish it from the tracts of the motor cortex that reach their targets by traveling through the pyramids of the medulla oblongata (the lower part of the brain that connects with the spinal column).
Basically, Afferent neurons process sensory information that has been received by the sensory receptors. This information is then neurochemically transmitted to the central nervous system
(CNS) which, in turn, signals the efferent neurons with information to activate motor and muscular information.
Though it is not mentioned in the text it is worth pointing out that this process can be overridden by the limbic system that activates the fight/flight/freeze survival responses of the amygdala and the hypothalamus., thus bypassing the frontal cortex and cutting off a measured and logically evaluated response. This type of reaction can occur when the decision-making process is faulty and the thoughts become hijacked.
The author's examination of and referral to Hans Eysenck's research on extraversion/introversion was enlightening and can be possibly aligned with a correlation for forensic considerations of sociopathy and psychopathy.
P. 96 there is an important inference made relating to psychological forensics and witness recall here. This relates to expectations and the projection of such expectations and how they may influence interpretation and response. Importantly the authors cite Snyder (1984) that "our beliefs influence the types of information to which we attend and actually remember"
One of the reasons I turned to this research was for my own examination of crowd psychology. There are a number of pertinent observations relating either directly or indirectly to this aspect of the research. Thus, starting on page 104 the authors consider the important contributions of Gustav LeBon (1896).
On page 121 the authors make a trite and misplaced comparison between Jesus and Mozart.
P. 150 The authors make an interesting observation relating to lack of emotion, empathy, and alexithymic response patterns (lacking the vocabulary to properly express emotion)this leads us to speculate about its role in, and perhaps draw parallels to psychopathy.
Beginning on page 175 the authors consider the important and inverse relationship between power and empathy. Very enlightening.
P. 177 the correlation of leadership and subordinate mimicry. Its advantages, appropriateness, and shortcomings.
P. 189 The authors come across as very supercilious and actually commit the same error they accuse others of in their own example.
Conclusions: All in all a very erstwhile effort. Whether you are interested in collective or individual psychology, such as myself, or you want to gain insights about emotional behavior as it relates to your own interpersonal relations, This would be a worthwhile and informative reference. Reading this work will also assist those involved in management, administration, medicine, leadership, sales, or quite possibly the entire gamut of other professions. In short, there is a little of something for everyone in this slim volume (205 pages). I highly recommend it and hope you will enjoy it as much as I did.
An interesting set of research studies and hypotheses based on the phenomenon of social contagion. I found this particularly enlightening with regard to my own field of work in psychological forensics and police interviewing. Measures of emotional arousal were conducted by measuring skin conductance, facial mimicry via electromyographic recordings, and clinical observations of body postures.
Emotional contagion and reception are largely characterized by facial expression (microexpressions) Voice (pitch, range, timbre), and kinesthetic elements such as balance posture and movement. Much as with the famous lie detector or polygraph tests, so too do the researchers, behind this title, relied upon skin conductance pulse, heartbeat, and transpiration to measure physiological variations in comportment via the autonomic nervous system (ANS).
Neurobiological expression is well detailed in explaining the interaction of the afferent response through stimulus perception through to and including the efferent response and subsequent reaction. The extrapyramidal system is examined and the authors underscore how this portion of the motor network causes involuntary reactions. It is called extrapyramidal in order to distinguish it from the tracts of the motor cortex that reach their targets by traveling through the pyramids of the medulla oblongata (the lower part of the brain that connects with the spinal column).
Basically, Afferent neurons process sensory information that has been received by the sensory receptors. This information is then neurochemically transmitted to the central nervous system
(CNS) which, in turn, signals the efferent neurons with information to activate motor and muscular information.
Though it is not mentioned in the text it is worth pointing out that this process can be overridden by the limbic system that activates the fight/flight/freeze survival responses of the amygdala and the hypothalamus., thus bypassing the frontal cortex and cutting off a measured and logically evaluated response. This type of reaction can occur when the decision-making process is faulty and the thoughts become hijacked.
The author's examination of and referral to Hans Eysenck's research on extraversion/introversion was enlightening and can be possibly aligned with a correlation for forensic considerations of sociopathy and psychopathy.
P. 96 there is an important inference made relating to psychological forensics and witness recall here. This relates to expectations and the projection of such expectations and how they may influence interpretation and response. Importantly the authors cite Snyder (1984) that "our beliefs influence the types of information to which we attend and actually remember"
One of the reasons I turned to this research was for my own examination of crowd psychology. There are a number of pertinent observations relating either directly or indirectly to this aspect of the research. Thus, starting on page 104 the authors consider the important contributions of Gustav LeBon (1896).
On page 121 the authors make a trite and misplaced comparison between Jesus and Mozart.
P. 150 The authors make an interesting observation relating to lack of emotion, empathy, and alexithymic response patterns (lacking the vocabulary to properly express emotion)this leads us to speculate about its role in, and perhaps draw parallels to psychopathy.
Beginning on page 175 the authors consider the important and inverse relationship between power and empathy. Very enlightening.
P. 177 the correlation of leadership and subordinate mimicry. Its advantages, appropriateness, and shortcomings.
P. 189 The authors come across as very supercilious and actually commit the same error they accuse others of in their own example.
Conclusions: All in all a very erstwhile effort. Whether you are interested in collective or individual psychology, such as myself, or you want to gain insights about emotional behavior as it relates to your own interpersonal relations, This would be a worthwhile and informative reference. Reading this work will also assist those involved in management, administration, medicine, leadership, sales, or quite possibly the entire gamut of other professions. In short, there is a little of something for everyone in this slim volume (205 pages). I highly recommend it and hope you will enjoy it as much as I did.
January 5, 2011
It wasn't enjoyable reading for me. Not terrible interesting and somewhat thick writing. Can't say I took anything away from it.
April 21, 2022
Brilliant analysis of social behaviour.
June 30, 2025
In essence, the author argues that human emotions are both internal and external (obviously the degree of which varies individually): we both feel our innate emotion (coming from our bodily functions), and while out and about interacting with other humans, we also captured their emotions - we would take account of their emotion (and they’d do the same to us) and adjust our total emotional feeling.
Which leads to the next conclusion: that human emotions could be contagious (again, depending on the person - a person without the capability to read emotions obviously won’t get affected). When we’re in a crowd of excitement, we too, can’t help but feel slightly more excited; when we’re in a crowd of sadness, the same theme would occur to us.
This really explains “invisible” peer pressure that I observe in daily lives - there are many things that doesn’t require a person to be an “in-group” in order to survive (or even thrive) - in fact, rationally speaking, often times embody into others’ emotions are detrimental (an example I’ll provide is sports fans’ dedication to their team. They could often not sleep in order to catch their team’s game, or spend lavishly to watch their team play. Net net, their life is not objectively better by doing so - in fact, there’d be more adverse effects to their pocket book as well as their available time for self improvement. Yet, the fans are arguably paying for the privilege to experience “excitement”).
Fairly useful stuff. Especially in the domain of knowing how to set oneself up to have the most rational thinking possible.
Which leads to the next conclusion: that human emotions could be contagious (again, depending on the person - a person without the capability to read emotions obviously won’t get affected). When we’re in a crowd of excitement, we too, can’t help but feel slightly more excited; when we’re in a crowd of sadness, the same theme would occur to us.
This really explains “invisible” peer pressure that I observe in daily lives - there are many things that doesn’t require a person to be an “in-group” in order to survive (or even thrive) - in fact, rationally speaking, often times embody into others’ emotions are detrimental (an example I’ll provide is sports fans’ dedication to their team. They could often not sleep in order to catch their team’s game, or spend lavishly to watch their team play. Net net, their life is not objectively better by doing so - in fact, there’d be more adverse effects to their pocket book as well as their available time for self improvement. Yet, the fans are arguably paying for the privilege to experience “excitement”).
Fairly useful stuff. Especially in the domain of knowing how to set oneself up to have the most rational thinking possible.
June 26, 2025
As a layman who is not studying psychology in any sort of educational setting, I found this study generally interesting. It definitely hindered me at certain times not knowing certain prerequisite psychological terms (and I embarrassingly had to look up a few things) but overall, it was fairly easy to follow.
I don't have too much to say about this study other than the excerpt I found the most interesting ironically was from Desmond Morris about postural echoing, nothing that Hatfield & Co. produced. That's not to say the rest of the book was uninteresting, of course.
I feel like I even learned a lot of things about myself and the way I interact with others, and it has been particularly interesting analyzing my previous and current relationships with friends, lovers, and family I've had throuvhout time, and comparing the different internal mechanisms we humans have that defines said relationships.
"Hats" off to Elaine and Co!
I don't have too much to say about this study other than the excerpt I found the most interesting ironically was from Desmond Morris about postural echoing, nothing that Hatfield & Co. produced. That's not to say the rest of the book was uninteresting, of course.
I feel like I even learned a lot of things about myself and the way I interact with others, and it has been particularly interesting analyzing my previous and current relationships with friends, lovers, and family I've had throuvhout time, and comparing the different internal mechanisms we humans have that defines said relationships.
"Hats" off to Elaine and Co!
October 13, 2022
Ein absoluter game changer... Eine der wichtigsten Lektüren unserer Zeit. Vieles in diesem Buch ist nicht mehr zeit konform und wissenschaftlich teilwiderlegt. Dennoch, die Grundbotschaft und die breite an wissenschaftlichen Erkenntnissen ist meines Erachtens nach ein Beweis der these dass Emotionen ansteckend sind. Nicht nur im übertragenen sondern im wörtlichen Sinne.
August 24, 2014
I too, used this book for my undergraduate dissertation. It formed part of the foundation of my research. Very interesting stuff. Best of all, it is academic! Awesome stuff for those interested in emotions and their affect on others.
October 7, 2016
An AMAZING source for my upcoming project for AP Research. Now to find some gaps!!
Displaying 1 - 13 of 13 reviews