上癮五百年

by David T. Courtwright, 薛絢 (Translator)

一八八一年間，一位西班牙醫生接生了一個死嬰，他狠狠吸了口雪茄朝嬰兒臉上一噴，本來死寂的嬰兒開始抽動，接著臉部一扭，哭出聲來。這嬰兒即是畢卡索。

為什麼咖啡、菸草和大麻在世界各地都有供應，而檳榔和咖特﹝阿拉伯茶的萃取物﹞卻不然？為什麼酒和菸是合法的，而海洛英與古柯鹼就是非法的？是什麼力量在推動這些改變精神狀態的物資的貿易，而這些物資的貿易又怎會形成如今這樣龐大而光怪陸離的模式──正常使用與異常濫用、醫療用與消遣用、合法商用與非法禁用的相互交錯？

本書從頭詳述這些效果愈來愈強之藥物是如何取得的，並將各種藥物──不論是茶葉、可樂果、鴉片、安非他命──如何被發現、交易與圖利的過程放大特寫，是藥物史觀的第一部世界史。

從社會與生物的角度說明影響精神狀態的物資為何具有誘惑力的同時，作者追蹤出大眾化藥物進入全球貿易主流的來龍去脈。商人與殖民地栽種者如何致力於擴大全世界的供應量、降低價格、吸引手頭並不寬裕的百萬計消費者走進市場，從而將藥物消費徹底平民化，舉凡以上種種，作者都一一予以揭露。

對於當年的歐洲人如何利用酒來誘迫原住民拿出獵得的動物皮毛來進行交易，並將俘虜賣入奴隸市場換錢買酒，甚至把這些原住民被騙得割土讓地，而殖民帝國的君主又如何利用藥物課稅所得的金錢作為發動戰爭與擴張勢力的經費，讀者也將歷歷在目。

本書也將說明此種暴利剝削為何在近一百年來逐漸式微，如何向管制與禁止的政策低頭，在這過程中，經濟與文化的考量又如何對政策發揮影響力，進而劃分出哪些藥物是可以合法供應的，哪些純屬醫療使用，哪些又是全面禁用的。

本書探討深入，見識均衡，文字雅潔，是迄今有關精神作用藥物流通史最完備的一部著作，堪稱橫跨世界史與藥物史兩個領域的必讀傑作。它為一個經常流於資訊不足或熱過頭的話題提供了寬廣的探究、理性的判斷以及戲而不謔的幽默。

Genres: History, Nonfiction, Drugs, Science, School, World History, Addiction

310 pages, Paperback

First published January 1, 2001

About the author

David Courtwright is known for his books on drug use and drug policy in American and world history (Dark Paradise, Addicts Who Survived, and Forces of Habit) and for his books on the special problems of frontier environments (Violent Land and Sky as Frontier). His most recent book, No Right Turn, chronicles the tumultuous politics and surprising outcome of the culture war that engulfed America in the four decades after Nixon's 1968 election.

Courtwright lives in Jacksonville, Florida, and teaches history at the University of North Florida, where he is Presidential Professor. He was educated at the University of Kansas and at Rice University.

Photo credit: David Wilson

Reviews

[Get X Serious · Rating 4 out of 5]

If nothing else, this book contains these three sentences:

"Bored, miserable creatures are more likely to seek altered consciousness than engaged, contented ones. Animals in captivity, for example, are much more likely to use intoxicants than those in the wild. And one could say that civilization itself represents a state of captivity."

Rarely do I read something that resonates so deeply within my own core set of beliefs.

[Black Spring · Rating 5 out of 5]

4.5 stars from me. the book largely succeeds in what it sets out to do, at least as much as any single 200 page book could: describe the advent of the "psychoactive revolution," i.e. the explosion in the global traffic of mind-altering substances, and its effect on the shape taken by the modern world as we know it. i had no idea that taxes on these substances accounted for so much of the revenues of empires, even if i did already have an inkling about how the substances themselves have been used to subjugate and distract populations of the poor, bored, exploited, miserable captive animals of civilization. the whole shitshow definitely could not go on without the nexus of forces described herein.

whether you are averse to drugs or an enthusiast, this was quite competently wrought history with intelligent and fairly light-handed commentary by an author who, notably for me, makes sure at several points to describe which biological and species faculties are being played upon by these substances and by the traffic in them by such powerful entities. Courtwright calls a spade a spade when it comes to colonization and domination, and even seems critical of industrial civilization in ways that i found somewhat surprising for a drug history written for a general readership. this was recommended to me by some anti-civ friends and i can see why. a good adjunct to other histories of the early modern and late modern world.

[J · Rating 3 out of 5]

Courtwright's history of psychoactive substances and their role in shaping the modern world is interesting, filled with tidbits and fascinating stories. At times I found his argument less than convincing, but when he examined the role of drugs in maintaining power relationships, skewing towards a more Marxist analysis of history, he was quite compelling. The problem is that he doesn't seem to stick to one theoretical viewpoint, and his analysis of history seems rather superficial. He often takes the dominant narrative about drugs and drug use at face value, when a more cutting analysis may have complicated his arguments in important ways. He has a tendency toward making sweeping generalizations and taking for granted prevailing theories on the dangers of drugs and how to decrease their use. In one example, he attacks proponents of harm reduction models, though offers no evidence to back the model he supports: that of supply-side reduction strategies. He seems totally unwilling to criticize this model in the slightest, although there's plenty of opportunity and a preponderance of evidence to show that it doesn't work. He casually (and cynically) remarks that the illness and death that can result from drug abuse (a phrasing he rejects) can be beneficial to humanity as a method of population control, extrapolating that without drug-related deaths our population would be essentially out of control, an assertion he doesn't bother to back up in the slightest. And while he manages to work in a Marxist reading of the role of drugs in maintaining late capitalist, he largely adopts a more free market view of drugs. In all, it is difficult to follow exactly what Courtwright's project actually is. Lastly, he completely ignores the role of race in what drugs we consider socially unacceptable, and reproduces a dangerous narrative of the War on Drugs. While these might be beyond his project, I feel that it was a major misstep for Courtwright to not even discuss other possibilities or worse, reject them out of hand.

It is difficult for me to quantify how much I did or didn't enjoy this book. I think it is well-written, clear and accessible and a fairly quick read. It is well-researched, despite my misgivings about the depth of his analysis. Finally, it was a hugely entertaining (if at times maddening!) read. On those grounds, I would recommend it, but with the giant caveat that Courtwright's version of the story is not the only one, and that he misses entirely some incredibly important factors on how we view psychoactive drugs. Some of these are beyond the scope of this book, but others are surprisingly large blindspots that you wouldn't expect in a book such as Forces of Habit. Finally, his insistence on supply-side methods of reduction is actively dangerous. So read this, and enjoy it, but take it with a grain of salt. And maybe pick up a few other books while you're at it, such as Eric Schlosser's Reefer Madness, Doris Marie Provine's Unequal Under Law, and Carl Hart's High Price, all of which both fill in the gaps that Courtwright has left wide open and dispel some of the more harmful assertions that Courtwright makes.

[Jason · Rating 3 out of 5]

I thought this book made really compelling arguments, and I liked that it was a more economic history than I'm generally used to reading. It was also written in a way that was cogent. That being said, some sections tended to be a barrage of anecdotes from various sources that were crammed together, and some of the anecdotes seemed to have their importance inflated. Courtwright briefly touches on harm reduction in the last chapter in a way that is out of touch with the field. Language that's stigmatizing towards people who use drugs is common in the book, and the biomedical model of so-called addiction is taken for granted without really being wrestled with. I liked it for illustrating how drugs were economic mainstays of different governments throughout history, but I was bored by the relatively underdeveloped way that Courtwright handles topics like injection drug use and chaotic drug use.

[Ichiro]

Read for class

[Ariadna73 · Rating 4 out of 5]

Drugs and the making of the modern world

Many things attracted me to this book. The fact that it was written by a professor of history, instead of the usual medical doctor who brilliantly explains how the addicted brain works. The idea of understanding a little bit more about the big picture around drug exploitation and the seductive appeal of power over the other, no matter the means, and how this seduction drove so many human beings to inflict such a damage over their fellow men and women, brothers in life.

This is an image of the cover information of the book I read:

Here are the acknowledgements. What struck me of this writing was that the author was labeling almost everything as a psychotropic agent. Once I read that paragraph, I started to think that maybe the author was doing a little bit overselling of his book. But that did not deter me from reading further.

The book is organized in three parts: the first one describes the most popular psychoactive agents: alcohol, caffeine, tobacco,opium, cannabis, cocaine; and gives a glimpse on the distribution strategies. The second part focus a little bit more in the commerce, from the point of view of the power that having and distributing the drug gives to the owner, and the third part dwells a little bit more in the power process behind the drug trade. Here is the table of contents:

Here is a description of a very interesting drug user: Anthony Colombo. The introduction just get the reader started onto something really juicy.

Here is a discussion on questioning why some substances have to be made illegal, assuming that we always are looking for pleasure instead of pain.

Below are a series of very interesting illustrations contained in this book. From an european "Chocolatada" to methamphetamine prescribed  by well-wisher doctors to housekeepers who needed to lose some weight by refusing that tasty piece of cake.

In the following paragraph the author wonders why some substances never made it into the big markets. What kept them from becoming drugs of choice?

Drugs had other uses, for example social status like in a good cigarette holder.

Here a discussion I found very interesting on how the fashion model industry has its little hands in the business of wanting and wishing for perfection, and how drugs go hand in hand with those ideas.

And finally, here is a classification I found really interesting on how the psychoactive drugs are categorized from pure prohibition to universal access

My takeaway from this book is that the most addictive drug is power. And that the real addicts are those who dare to damage the world so much by trading drugs and trying to make other humans addicted. They are addicted to the power it gives to them, from economic to any other kind of power in the world. It was an interesting read, haunting and puzzling at some points, a little bit dry on others, but a good book in general. I will keep it on my shelf for good reference on power and the thirst for it.

I also have a blog! Here is the link: http://lunairereadings.blogspot.com

[Mr. Murphy · Rating 4 out of 5]

Reading this book made me acutely aware of my addiction to caffeine. I cannot imagine a day without it. I'm in a bad mood without it.

Addiction is everywhere. Perhaps not all addictions are created equal, but our differing reactions to addictions to different drugs are not always rational. On some scoring systems, alcohol is one of the most dangerous and addictive drugs in the world, yet there are few restrictions for adults over 21 to purchase effectively unlimited quantities.

While drugs and alcohol are a constant presence during the creation of the modern world, I think the author overstates the role they played. Far from a driving force, alcohol, tobacco and other drugs (ATOD) were at best a catalyst during the evolution of modern life.

[Alexa · Rating 4 out of 5]

This is a great book outlining the history of drugs and how it has shaped the modern world.’ While it is an easy read, it is pretty dense, so a lot of skimming happened.

[Paul S · Rating 1 out of 5]

This book is essentially a loose collections of facts about drugs. To that extent I can recommend it if you’re interested, the only reason I finished it is bc I was learning something and it was an easy read. Other than that it was pretty bad. Their wasn’t really a much more than a surface level analysis. He doesn’t stick to one topic long enough to flesh it out. He’s constantly switching between coffee, alcohol, tobacco etc and it’s a little dizzying. He often phrases others opinions through free indirect speech, which I think is an attempt to be cheeky or entertaining but I think it borders on inappropriate, especially when that opinion is pretty vile. Also, like no racial dimension to the analysis— in a book about drugs. He also just says things some times where I’m just thinking what is the source for this because it is a pretty loaded/general statement. Just not a book where I felt like I trusted the writer, he never explicitly addresses any methodology or theoretical approach to the material. He says something in the bibliographical note along the lines of that the writing was a “writer-in-the-stacks” kind of process, which is pretty evident. In other words you’re probably better off reading the Wikipedia page for drugs— the analysis you’d be missing is relatively common sense if you know that drugs can make people money while at the same time be bad for people.

[Timothy Lee · Rating 5 out of 5]

Forces of Habit is a force in itself, a sweeping overview of the historical trends influencing the global trade in psychoactive substances from the Early Modern Period through today! This book is an excellent, approachable read for physicians like myself as well as psychologists, nurses, social workers, public health advocates, and politicians--basically anybody in the position of caring about these substances or for the people who use them could benefit from reading this book. Courtwright does an excellent job illustrating broader themes with local case studies and presenting a range of perspectives on controversial issues. He manages to check his own biases much more effectively than some other authors I have read on the subject. I highly recommend this book for anyone trying to understand how we got where we are today in terms of the role substances play in our society and our politics!

[Cassidy · Rating 4 out of 5]

Interesting read on the history and effects of global interactions through drugs. From coffee to heroin, Courtright dismantles the pharmaceutical industry and the epidemic of addiction that correlates to money and power. Not 5 starts because it was hard to keep moving forward through the book when dates jump from the Industrial Revolution to current in every other chapter. I spent a lot of time re-reading pages to make sure I wasn't lost before moving on to the next page.

[Kiara · Rating 3 out of 5]

This book was interesting, but unremarkable. In trying to discuss every drug in every society ever, it ends up being too broad and not focused enough, although each individual account is very interesting. Still, Courtwright is a great history writer, and I would definitely read another of his books.

[Erica · Rating 4 out of 5]

"The misery and grinding poverty that were the lot of 90 percent of humanity in the early modern world go far toward explaining why tobacco and other novel drugs became objects of mass consumption. They were unexpected weapons against the human condition, newfound tools of escape from the mean prison of everyday existence."

[Axel Koch · Rating 3 out of 5]

This is mostly well-written and informative, but how can you write a book about as cool a subject as literally all the drugs in the world and yet come off as such a square?? Not sure this guy has ever tried anything harder than a Budweiser

[Ms.Caprioli · Rating 5 out of 5]

This book explains the connection between “soft” drugs and the first globalization that led to capitalism, and how capitalism now depends largely on the control and taxation of commodities like coffee and alcohol.

[Ben · Rating 4 out of 5]

Sure!

[CHEON AN · Rating 5 out of 5]

What makes people feel good is not necessarily good for them.

[Riley · Rating 3 out of 5]

Chaotic..

[Zee · Rating 3 out of 5]

人类一直就那样，与上瘾作斗争，有的人因此盆满钵满，有的人因此倾家荡产

[David F. · Rating 3 out of 5]

In this book David Courtwright, Professor of History at the University of North Florida, tells "the story of psychoactive commerce." It is Courtwright's theme that psychoactive drugs - both legal and illegal - are commodities, like bread or cloth. They are manufactured, packaged, distributed, marketed and used much like any other commodity. They go in and out of public favor and new and improved products are constantly being introduced. Throughout human history, governments had generally treated drugs like any other commodities. Prior to the Twentieth Century opium, coca, and cannabis were all legally available in the form of patent medicines that were widely and casualty used in both the United States and Britain.

Courtwright divides his book into three sections, with some overlap in content between sections. The first (titled "The Confluence of Psychoactive Resources") describes the way drugs, having originally been geographically confined, entered the stream of global commerce. He compares the history of drugs to the history of infectious diseases in that travel and transport were the variables that influenced the spread of both. Alcohol, tobacco and caffeine (the "big three") and opium, cannabis, and coca ("the little three") all owed their success, he claims, to the expansion of oceangoing commerce.

In the second section ("Drugs and Commerce") Courtwright takes up the issue of drugs as medical and recreational products. Section three ("Drugs and Power") discusses pressures and developments that influenced governments to discard the centuries old policy of a taxed, legal drug commerce in favor of restriction and, in some cases, even prohibition. Not surprisingly, he concludes that this happened "because it served the interests of the wealthy and powerful," but he seems to largely overlook the important role that racism played in motivating prohibition.

Despite the evident failure of drug prohibition in the U.S. and elsewhere, Courtwright endorses the continuation of supply-side strategies. He insists that drugs will be abused wherever they are available, and that efforts must therefore focus on reducing supply. "The task now," he writes, "is to adjust the system." But his optimism about making prohibition work seems perfunctory. Throughout this book, Courtwright paints a gloomy view of the drug problem that is likely to convince the reader that no adjustments to the system will cut off the supply of drugs. There is much to be gained from reading this book whether you accept the author's policy conclusions or not.

[Jianghengqiang · Rating 4 out of 5]

##引言
《上瘾五百年》是美国作家约翰·卡特莱特撰写的一本历史学普及型读物。这本书主要描述了从1492年哥伦布发现新大陆以来，自烟草为代表的致瘾性药物成为全球性的消费品，接着精神刺激类药品为人滥用，主流社会先大力推广、然后重税攫利、接着强化禁止，直到难以措手的简要历史。
这本书的绪论部分写得十分精到完善，读完这一部分，读者就能把握全书的主要论点和论证过程。所以大段地摘抄提炼”主要内容“好像画蛇添足。但与此同时，由于作者从公共政策、医学、政治学等多个方面分析致瘾品泛滥的问题，而我没有受过人文和社会科学的系统训练，我没有办法批判性地研读这本书，写不出有价值的东西。下面仅就我感兴趣的几个点写一点粗浅的感想。

##我的一点感想
### 精神刺激品发展路线图
在知乎上，已有答主简述了毒品的进化方式，下面我使用本书中的例子转述如下：
首先有一种植物（罂粟），然后人们蒸煮提炼（鸦片）、化学家详细分析了其中的有效成分（提纯出吗啡，效力已远胜鸦片）。接着有机合成化学发展，人们对提纯物进行了改性（在吗啡上添加两个小乙酰族、形成海洛因，效力达到了吗啡的四倍）。与此同时，药理学高度发展，人们认识到原来是生物碱能刺激脑部，研制了全合成新产品（羟戊甲吗啡，效力达到吗啡的上千倍）。
伴随这一过程，在《通天塔》中，阿富汗老妇用来缓解女主人公枪伤疼痛的鸦片烟就进化成为效力极为强大的毒品了。真正的毒药，一旦尝试只会导致死亡。

但是本书的主题是”致瘾品”，比起“毒品”宽泛得多，酒精、咖啡因、烟草也在本书的分析范围内。与鸦片相同，咖啡因致瘾品的一个代表可乐，其实也经历了类似的过程：
首先有一种植物（可乐果），人们蒸煮提炼将咖啡因掺入酒中，制成彭东法国古柯酒。因为酒精受人反对，商人在其中添加咖啡因结晶粉，用橘精掩盖剩余的苦味，制成了可乐饮料的原型。一种行销全球的饮料不能依赖一种地方性植物，于是可乐进入全合成时代，由人工合成的咖啡因和香料共同制作。

总之，致瘾品往往从植物开始，到全合成为止。当然有的时候发展到一个阶段就不向前了，例如香烟产生之后并没有带来尼古丁贴片、大麻发展到大麻烟为止。还有倒过来的。例如从古柯叶发展到可卡因，提纯成为Crack，但由于价格太昂贵，所以在中美洲又开始掺杂质向外卖。还有一个不恰当的例子。比如西地那非转变为各种”天然不掺化学成分”的增强”肾动力“的补酒。

### 自用亡身、群用亡族
本书引用了其他研究者的论述，指出从区域上来看，越容易获取瘾品的地方成瘾人口越多。从人群上来看，年轻、单身、人际交往偏少，缺乏体质上或文化背景上的防范机制，已经在使用其他瘾品的人越容易沾染瘾品。所以我自己要格外小心。
而在滥用毒品、亡国灭种的例子上，作者没有用晚清滥用鸦片的例子。我觉得这个例子最贴切了。而是使用了北美印第安人用珍贵的毛皮换烈酒，结果导致家小饥寒交迫，人口锐减的例子。另外，作者引用了二十世纪八十年代的前苏联禁酒的例子，来说明官方管制在文化环境面前可能多么无能为力。但我觉得滥饮可能也是二十世纪九十年代，俄罗斯人均期望寿命较八十年代降低的重要原因。

总得来说，虽然本书是从中性化、学术性的角度来谈论致瘾品的问题。但所举得事例还是充分说明毒品对人和社会都有极大伤害。作为一个没什么脑子的人，我绝不能沾染这些毒品。

###核心还是金钱与权力
本书的第二部分”瘾品与贸易”，是从消费者（《享乐的陷阱》）和厂商（《逃离商品地狱》）两个角度来讲述是怎样的机制，使得瘾品贩卖成为了一门合法也罢、非法也罢，总之是不容忽视、规模庞大的产业。
经济基础决定上层建筑。等到第三部分”瘾品与权力”中，统治集团针对致瘾品的不同态度，往往与它所处的产业地位紧密相连。例如烈酒在美国二十世纪初叶被禁和限制、在于它总和贫苦的爱尔兰移民联系在一起。可在法国，由于整个产业关联就业人口众多，就根本无法禁止。即是对于公认危害社会的毒品，处置方式也是一门公共管理的大学问，高关税会带来走私、严禁会带来黑市、放任自留会带来使用人数增多、外部社会成本升高、课以重税其实会导致政府鼓励支持产业发展。按照本书的说法，不论是“鸽派”、“鹰派”还是“猫头鹰派”，都有难以处置的问题。当然这还是在可以从多个角度理性讨论问题的政治体制中，才会让对同一社会问题的不同看法公开表露出来。否则的话，就只能是利益集团暗自较劲、明面政策互相掣肘了。

例如2016年2月，北京市全面执行公共场合室内禁烟，说明政府对于烟草管控又迈出可喜的一步。可与此同时，让警示性图片覆盖香烟外包装这一行之有效的做法，却无法得到有效实施。我想专卖制度无疑使得管控烟草极为困难。

##结语
本书收听自《静雅思听》。

[GWC · Rating 4 out of 5]

This book is great fun not least because of the author's extraordinary skill in the efficient delivery of interesting facts. The opening chapters which detail the origins of the world's major drugs are among the most informative I've read. The second half of the book while still engrossing is a less comprehensive historic analysis of drug use and prohibition. Courtwright concentrates on economics at the expense of culture emphasizing production and commerce rather than demand and moral opposition. Given the enormous social influences in the modern world such as the American cultural war against 60's drug use and the pervasive use of alcohol and tobacco as social tools the emphasis on money and power over cultural forces in the past strikes me as an incomplete analysis. It leads the author to unconvincingly argue that American prohibition and its repeal were primarily the results of economic interests (a "contradiction of capitalism"). Oddly the same events in the Soviet Union are attributed to "popular resistance" without any comparative discussion of the two nations. Finally the value of pleasure and the concept of individual rights are generally neglected. In the end my main problem with is that Courtwright doesn't give culture the excellent and amusing treatment he gives commerce. I can think of worse things to say about a book.

[Jon]

Lots of great information here. (Did you know the Marquis de Sade used cacao suppositories? That FDR's grandfather was an opium smuggler? That Emma Goldman smoked 2 packs a day? That Franco paid his Berber troops partly in hashish? I didn't.) Even more impressive is the way Courtwright uses his many varied sources to present a coherent history of drugs and their impact on society in a relatively short space. I especially liked his discussion of the Third World favorites that have never made it to Western users. But at the end of the day--or rather, the end of the book--it's the same old story, as Courtwright plumps for "harm reduction" and declares that a free, unrestricted market in drugs is not the way to go. Why not? Why hand out clean needles to addicts, then arrest them a block away for buying adulterated street dope? Why conclude that government can influence human behavior for the better, when--even if this were politicians' intention, and even assuming it to be desirable--every page of this mostly excellent book shows the reverse to be the case? (Courtwright is also wrong when he says the "harm reduction" concept predates campaigns for legalization: "harm reduction" goes back to the 1980s, while Gore Vidal was calling for legalization in the NEW YORK TIMES back in 1970. And he wasn't the only one.)

[Michael Lin · Rating 4 out of 5]

All the stuff you never knew about the histories of drugs, especially alcohol, tobacco, caffeine, marijuana and opium.

How could opium and marijuana be benign in India for centuries before the british arrived, but destroy entire cities afterwards?
Why was alcohol pushed by rich and powerful onto the poor and the colonized as a form of wage slavery, but only up to the industrial revolution, when it become the devil's drink?
How did the taxing alcohol and tobacco through expensive licensing fees actually increase consumption in industrial Britain?

I love this kind of history book that takes an economic approach, explaining people's actions by determining who wins and who loses in each situation. I feel afterwards that it all makes sense.

Another big insight for me is that, historically, people used drugs in a big way to deal with tedious work and boredom. Field workers had rations of alcohol. Low level workers in India would smoke opium for their only excitement. Recently even I saw a garbage man doing his rounds with a joint in his mouth. I guess I'm just lucky to have an interesting job, although I do still turn to reddit and hacker news.

The only downside of this book is that it stops just as things start to get interesting with the War on Drugs. I guess that'd be a whole other book though.

[Erik Graff · Rating 4 out of 5]

This is a good, accessible socio-economic study of the history of the global drug trades--a fine background for any informed discussion of drug policy.

As regards the United States, which has effectively set global drug policies since World War II, the ostensible purposes of drug policies are so radically at variance with the actual consequences of these policies that it is fair to turn the equation around. Rather than thinking of the avowed intents of the policy formulators, think of the real effects. Among them are the following:
1. The creation of immense, illegal and untraceable fortunes
2. The record of the utilization of such untraceable funds by various governmental black-operations and intelligence agencies (f.i. both the French & the USA in Indochina, the USA & its client states in Central and South America, the USA in Afghanistan, the British in India and China, etc.).
3. The creation of immense bureaucracies to enforce drug laws.
4. The creation of laws aimed at stemming drug traffic which increase state police powers and decrease individual liberties.
--What I don't know is if there is any correlation between increased suppression of drugs and the increased use of these same drugs. I wouldn't be surprised if there were.

[Aaron · Rating 5 out of 5]

Courtwright does an excellent job to cover the history of psychoactive drugs and how they have shaped the modern world. He doesn't advocate for any particular viewpoint, whether political, social, religious, moral. Instead, he explores the history of various ongoing debates and issues relating to drugs, and evenhandedly covers the many sides of each. Perhaps the best thing is that he makes the material interesting. He shows why past issues remain relevant today, and how they shaped modern policy and attitudes.

The format makes it exceptionally easy to read without compromising academic standards. He thoroughly documents his work, using 45 pages of endnotes, without bogging down the reading. Also, he includes a Bibliographic Note at the end, recommending various related texts, and explaining their strong and weak points.

It's not meant as an A to Z history, but more of a balanced primer on psychoactive drugs and their past and present role in society.

[John Jung · Rating 5 out of 5]

Forces of Habit is a social history rather than a neuro-physio-chemical discussion of a range of psychoactive drugs,not limited to legal ones (alcohol and tobacco) or illegal ones (cocaine, marijuna, heroin)that are most commonly problematic. Courtwright appropriately includes coverage of chocolate, cocoa, tea, and sugar as addictive substances. Unlike most social science books on psychoactive drugs that focus on psychological, sociological, and legal aspects, Courtwright places much needed attention on the economic underpinnings of drugs in the history of their usage. The book is nicely written, with fascinating anecdotes (which some readers find distracting), and provides a balanced perspective.

[Rudivanderzande · Rating 3 out of 5]

'Forces of habit' focusses on the psychoactive revolution that occured after the discovery of the New World. It's mainly about trafficing and how some drugs are made deviant and others are not. Even though it is an interesting read I hoped it gave more insight on how the general public thought about these drugs, it's legislation and it's deviance. By times I thought it was quite difficult to read because there was no real chronology it Courtwright's writing nor was there a good arrangment of subjects (ie Tabacco, Mariuhana, Alcohol). I didn't get the feeling I was actually learning something by reading this. Having a great interest in the subject I felt like I've allready read most of it.

[Thefeintinggoat · Rating 2 out of 5]

Some nice information on the commodification and subsequent control of substances across the globe (including a wonderful few pages on the summation of the Duke Tobacco Company rise). However, it pales in comparison to the thorough job Pursuit of Oblivion does of tracing drugs in the post WWII era, and suffers in its latter half. Also adopts, for no certain reason, an anti-legalization/decriminalization stance, and believes either of these alternatives with retard some sort of progress.
Never the less, it's a nice compliment to Pursuit of Oblivion, though certainly not in the same class. Great for the period of 1890-1920, and very well notated.

[Dave Black · Rating 3 out of 5]

While this book has a lot of good information, it doesn't really come together to tell any cohesive story, other than that drugs have spread over the past 500 years, unevenly and in fits and starts. There's no real overarching argument, and the work suffers from a lack of focus. I think the chapters would have been better ordered either chronologically, or by drug, rather than thematically as they are, with no real regard for the timeline.

Worth a read, but don't expect too much.