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432 pages, Paperback
First published October 28, 1995
It is now generally realized that most of the problems that children encounter in calculations in primary schools are associated with them being introduced too early to formal algorithms, written in a vertical format. Vertical layouts for additions and subtractions especially lead children to treat the digits in the numbers as though they are individual numbers and then to combine them in all kinds of bizarre and meaningless ways.
When formal written methods have been taught, encourage children still to look for an easier way to do additions and subtractions by mental and informal methods first, before resorting to formal written algorithms.