The Age of Reason - During the 18th and 19th centuries, many notable female figures were outspoken about the need to challenge women's subordinate social position. Their writings express, to a great extent, the legacy of the Age of Enlightenment by insisting that we must use /reason/ as opposed to /faith/ to discover any truth about our existence. Finding things out individually rather than unquestioningly following tradition was the Enlightenment's practice of /free enquiry/. "Reason can free us from superstition" "Free enquiry is the simple path to truth" "Reason and 'free enquiry' can be cultivated through education" "Reasonable' free enquiry dictates that women need more opportunities" p 15
In 1884 Friedrich Engels wrote 'The Origins of the Family, Private Property and The State'. In this work he argues that the family unit is vital for the success of capitalism. p 22
Against Rousseau - Wollstonecraft wrote Vindication in response to the Swiss-French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-78), whose book Emile Claimed that women were sentimental and frivolous, and that in marriage they could occupy only a subordinate position as companions to their husbands. // As a pioneer of the British suffrage movement she was outspoken about the need to challenge prescribed gender roles. She advocated women's education and argued for their right to participate in public life, declaring: "I do not wish women to take power over men; but over themselves" p 28
"Reason is absolutely necessary to enable a woman to perform any duty properly, and I must again repeat that /sensibility/ is not /reason/." In this respect, teaching girls to read romance, play music, sing and recite poetry will nourish their sensibilities at the cost of their sense. Girls educated in such frivolous pursuits, she concluded, are more likely to become emotionally dependent, to shrink their domestic duties and indulge in morally reprehensible actions. Rational and independent women however, develop moral capacities which enable them to become 'observant daughters', 'affectionate sisters' 'reasonable mothers' and 'faithful wives'. p 30
Wollstonecraft maintained that an ideal marriage is one of intellectual companionship and equality. She challenged contemporary social beliefs by declaring that: "The divine right of husbands, like the divine rights of kings, may, it is hoped, in this enlightened age, be contested without danger." p 31
Elizabeth Cady Stanton have the keynote speech (at the 1848 Woman's Rights Convention), which she entitled 'Now we demand our right to vote'. She provocatively warned men in power that "so long as your women are slaves you may throw your colleges and churches to the winds. / You can't have scholars and saints so long as your mothers are ground to powder between the upper and nether millstone of tyranny and lust." p 59
Woolf is a modernist writer who explores the limitations of conventional narrative genres and sets out to create a form of female self-expression. "I use stream of consciousness narratives because I want to describe the atoms as they fall upon the mind in the order in which the fall." p 81
Existence Precedes Essence - De Beauvoir explained subjectivity (our sense of Self) through Existentialist philosophy. Existentialism proposes that one exists first, and through one's acts, one becomes something. She reasoned that an individual has absolute control over their fate, and neither society not organized religion should limit our freedom to live authentically. "We construct our sense of Self in relation to something which is not "our self" - an Other." But since men have claimed the category of Self, or Subject, for themselves, woman is relegated to the status of Other. Consequently, the category of woman has no substance except as an extension of male fantasy and fears. Since all cultural representations of the world around us have been produced by men, women read themselves in terms of masculine definitions and "dream through the dreams of men." Thus woman is required to accept her status of Other, "make herself object" and "renounce her autonomy." "This status of other can be change if women learn to access the subjecthood they have so far been denied. Women must achieve complete economic and social equality, which will enable an inner metamorphosis to take place. Wien a female becomes a woman, she will be Subject as man is a Subject, and an Other to man in as much as he is Other to her." p 87
Socialist feminists saw great potential in uniting women into bonds of sisterhood which would allow for a revolutionary seizing of power. p 102
Traditional Marxist Feminism "We ascribe social factors such as class division to women's oppression. We advocate the eradication of the bourgeois family structures which depend on women's unpaid domestic labour." p 103
Consuming for Capitalism - Shulamith Firestone (The Dialectic Sex / 1970) explained that the biological family based on sex class discrimination benefits capitalism by making possible the confinement of women to the domestic sphere and enabling men to control the public sphere. "As unpaid house workers, women, and their children, become consumers in support of the capitalist economy." Capitalism is thus predicated upon the distinctions of woman-as-reproducer and man-as-producer. However, once women are freed from the responsibility to reproduce, they can participate in the workplace and achieve economic and personal independence. p 120
Misogyny in Literature - Kate Millett (Sexual Politics / 1970) looked to literature for examples of misogyny. She isolated the trio of D.H.Lawrence, Henry Miller and Norman Mailer as the worst culprits. "Literature acts as a form of propaganda for patriarchy, and these authors in particular had reactionary ideas which explicitly glorified the stereotyping and objectification of women." p 123
Ann Oakley (Subject Women / 1981) provocatively suggested that although some social groups have conspired against women, yet women have also conspired among themselves and discriminated against their own kind. She advocated a more active engagement of feminists in the sociological aspects of women's lives rather than confining their efforts to the elite domains of research and academia. p 126
Gynocriticism - In the 1970s, a decade which witnessed intense feminist activity on the political and sociological levels, feminist academics became actively engaged in challenging the western literary canon. "The western canon revolves around literary work endorsed by patriarchy, written mostly by men." Elaine Showalter's 'A literature of their Own' (1977) attempted to establish a literary tradition which reflected the variety of women's experience of the world. It also claimed women writers as significant contributors to the corpus of Western literary writing. p 127
Showalter divided female literary history into three phases. The Feminine Phase (1840-80) in which writing produced by women imitated mainstream publications by men. The Feminist phase (1880-1920) in which women writers protested against their marginalization. The Female phase (1920s onwards) when women's writing is preoccupied with self-discovery. // In 1979 Showalter coined the term "gynocriticism" to refer to a form of critical practice whereby the "psychodynamics of female creativity" is explored and recorded. Gynocriticism became associated with Anglo-American feminist literary criticism, and Sandra M. Gilbert and Susan Gubar's The Madwoman in the Attic (1979) is one its most influential works. It attempted to establish an Anglo-American literary tradition of women without referring to or incorporating male authors. p 128
Adrienne Rich (1929-2012) Made the case for biological motherhood and argued against Firestone and Oakley's positions. // In her book Of Woman Born (1976), Rich noted that women's experiences of pregnancy, childbirth and mothering are increasingly controlled by male doctors, who are replacing female midwives. "This control over women's reproduction and their bodies enables the perpetuation of patriarchal principles which dictate to women when to eat, sleep, exercise, have sex, breastfeed, feel pleasure and endure pain." Rich concluded that if women reclaimed control over their bodies during pregnancy and were able to perform motherhood without interference from male representatives of the patriarchal establishment, then they would become less alienated from their bodies, their spirits and the institution of motherhood. p 136
As a feminist who identifies as a lesbian, Rich coined the term "compulsory heterosexuality" in 1980. She maintained that patriarchal society dictates that women must choose men as their sexual partners and perpetuates the ideology of the heterosexual romance. Consequently, lesbian sexuality is seen as deviant and transgressive "The emphasis on the primacy of the man-woman relationship precludes the development of any bonds of sisterhood between women." p 137
Gyn/Ecology - Mary Daly (1928-2010) was a radical feminist philosopher and theologian. In 1973 she published God the Father, in which she maintained that the function of God in all religions is to 'act as a legitimating paradigm for the institution of patriarchy' "If men's claim to personhood is based on the assumption that they have been created in the image of God, then through the process of power-over they marginalize women as non-persons, impersonal objects, Other. // I advise feminists to advocate the notion of God as Immanence and to detach God from gender." // In her most famous book, Gyn/Ecology (1978), she rejected the term "God" altogether. She urged women to access the "wild woman" within them who will liberate them from social restrictions of feminine behaviours. Daly advocated revising language, which mainly represents men's experience of the world. She published a feminist dictionary, Webster's First New Intergalactic Wickedry of the English Language (1987). p 138
These ideas are illustrated in Audre Lorde's explanation that, as a 'forty-nine-year-old Black lesbian feminist socialist, mother of two, including one boy, and a member of an interracial couple', she did not want to divorce herself from any aspect of her identity in her feminist activism. Rather, Lorde concludes that in order to achieve a sense of Oneness, and escape the incessant feeling of Otherness ... "I will integrate all the parts of who I am, openly, allowing power from particular sources of my living to flow back and forth freely through all my different selves, without restrictions of externally imposed definition." Nowadays Lorde's concerns are captured and developed in discussions on intersectionality. p 141
Popular fiction in the 1980s - In the Female Eunuch, Germaine Greer famously proclaimed that novels were the "opiate of the supermenial" and described the romantic hero as the "invention of women cherishing the chains of their own bondage." Romance stories published in women's magazined and in Mills and Boon novels generated a great deal of debate in the 1980s. // Ann Douglas dubbed the phenomenal increase in mass-market romance a symptom of "soft-porn culture." She thinks the increase in the popularity and availability of these novels can be correlated with concerted efforts to undermine the rise of the women's movement. p 154
The women's movement encouraged women to see themselves as individuals, not as types: Angel, Madonna, Mother, Prostitute, Dutiful Daughter, Etc. Mass market romance was part of the backlash against feminist activities to free women from the stereotypes which had been perpetuated about them for centuries. // However, other feminist critics questioned women's passivity as readers and refused to believe the suggestion that women believed and adopted the stereotypes offered to them in romance novels. Tania Modleski (b. 1949) is a Marxsist feminist who writes about the representation of women in the popular media. Her first book, 'Loving with a Vengeance' (1982), scrutinized traditional forms of writing which were aimed at women, such as Harlequin novels, Gothic romance and television soap operas. p 155
We distinguish between Erotica, which depicts women enjoying sexual encounters and finding fulfillment in them, and Thanatica which denotes sexually explicit images of women being involuntarily physically possessed and dismembered in sexually coercive situations. // ... Nancy Friday is one critic who made a career out of compiling and examining women's sexual fantasies. ... Recent scholarship on "feminist queer pornographies" has questioned mainstream pornography's representation of behaviour that is cis-identified, heteronormative and predominantly capitalist lifestyles. To learn more about this topic, look up Courtney Trouble's visual and critical work. p 158
Fat is a political issue. Rich societies value thinness in women, poor societies value plumpness in women, but all male dominant societies value weakness in women. Beauty is not about how we look; it is about getting us to do whatever society wants us to do. - Gloria Steinem p 161
Judith Butler argues that gender distinctions are valid only if we accept a social system based on Binary Oppositions: i.e. seeing woman as opposed to man; "feminine" as the opposite of "masculine". p 165