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Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Arab World: The Roots of Sectarianism
Masters explores the history of Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Empire and how their identities evolved over four hundred years. While early communities lived within the hierarchy of Muslim law, the nineteenth century witnessed radical change. In response to Western influences, conflict erupted between Muslims and Christians across the empire. This marked the beginning of tensions that informed the rhetoric of religious fundamentalism in the empire's successor states throughout the twentieth century. Thus Masters negotiates the present through the past, contributing to our understanding of the contemporary Muslim world.
240 pages, Hardcover
First published August 6, 2001
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Displaying 1 - 3 of 3 reviews
August 22, 2018
Aspects of Identity
Ottomans called the lands south of Anatolia Arabistan. The people of Damascus referred to them as Bilad al-Sham, the countryside (Bilad) belonging to Damascus. Lebanon was a local designation referring to a smaller area centered around a cluster of mountains. Only Europeans would distinguish between Syria and Palestine, or alternatively "The Holy Land" or for Jews "Eretz Israel. The central theme is how different groups defined and redefined themselves and were differently described by others.
The book focuses mainly on the repositioning of the Christian community in Anatolia, al-Sham and Iraq over the four centuries of Ottoman domination, with some minor coverage of Egypt, but does not include anything further south or in the North African west. Compared to the Egyptian Mamluks who preceded them in al-Sham, the Ottoman Turks are presented as relatively benevolent rulers who, subject to the terms of the 9th century Pact of Umar, modified or rare occasions by well placed bribes, allowed local religious/non-Muslim communities a degree of autonomy to manage their internal affairs. These remnants of Byzantium coalesce into distinct groups based on a combination of geographic closeness and theological schisms which were clearly described. It was extremely interesting to follow the motivations and changing alliances between the European powers and internal groups. Masters dismisses a colonial explanation and opts for a functional approach based on altruism and self interest.
In the 16th century the Roman Catholic Church, executed a rear guard defense against Protestantism in Europe by attempting to restoring ties with the east. Initially the emissaries were Italian and the approach was to establish schools with a goal of shading theological differences towards a Latin interpretation. As France's military power expanded in the 18th and 19th century the RC Church's role was assumed by Catholic from France, and the movement was successful amongst Marionites and Syrian Melkites (among others) because, as Masters suggests, the Orthodox Patriarchs in Istanbul and Antioch were too far removed and the Catholic Church afforded a both a larger degree of local autonomy, offered education to girls as well as boys and allowed participation of women in public religious life. Conversely, for Christians, there were attractions towards Islam which offered men and women the opportunity to divorce. The priests were followed by merchants, both English and French. Masters details how the internal commercial network was heavily dominated by Christians and Jews to begin with, both as customs brokers and as traders, in the latter case often in partnership with Muslim financial backing, however as dhimmis they paid a higher rate of tax (5% vs 3%) on the total value of traded goods. Under the system of capitulations Europeans were given reciprocal trading rights with the Ottomans, many Ottoman Christians and Jews were attracted to work as dragomen (agents/middle men) and Europeans obtained language, customs and negotiating services as well as access to the network. As dragomen this increased status put non-Muslims on a equal basis with their Muslim counterpart, both in terms of taxation and, at least in commercial matters, standing in the court, and gave dragomen the leverage of European financing. However the vast majority of the dhimmi class were poor and had to wait until the 19th century for emancipation.
The turning point of the Ottoman 19th century were the Tanzimat constitutional reforms of 1839, the project of a small group of liberal reformers in Istanbul who were inspired by similar changes happening in Europe and as a remedy to the internal conquest of al Sham by Ali Pasha in the 1830s. Armenians, Jews, Copts and Orthodox Christians embraced the reforms which were resented by many Muslims as they viewed it as privileging others and of little benefit to being reduced to the status of equals, and resentment against the rising Christian fortunes lead to a series of pogroms against Christians between 1850 and 1860. For some an appeal to the idea of Ottomanism and the benevolent protection of the Sublime Porte was sufficient, however amongst the intelligentsia a second alternative emerged - Arab Nationalism. There was little interest from Jews who preferred a lower political profile, and a corresponding Salafiyya sentiment which argued for a modernized state, either Arab or Ottoman, based on Muslim principles where Christians and Jews could live in harmony and equality with their Muslim brothers. The details of how this would work are still under development. ;-)
Masters' examples present a nuanced illustration of the evolving rivalry between ethnic and religious groups, cities such as Aleppo, Damascus and Cairo, the major mercantile power centres of the region, and the spillover that affected communities in Antioch, Nablus, Beirut, Basra, Baghdad and Jerusalem. It's an excellent read that manages to both inform and shift one's understanding of an era.
Recommended!
Ottomans called the lands south of Anatolia Arabistan. The people of Damascus referred to them as Bilad al-Sham, the countryside (Bilad) belonging to Damascus. Lebanon was a local designation referring to a smaller area centered around a cluster of mountains. Only Europeans would distinguish between Syria and Palestine, or alternatively "The Holy Land" or for Jews "Eretz Israel. The central theme is how different groups defined and redefined themselves and were differently described by others.
The book focuses mainly on the repositioning of the Christian community in Anatolia, al-Sham and Iraq over the four centuries of Ottoman domination, with some minor coverage of Egypt, but does not include anything further south or in the North African west. Compared to the Egyptian Mamluks who preceded them in al-Sham, the Ottoman Turks are presented as relatively benevolent rulers who, subject to the terms of the 9th century Pact of Umar, modified or rare occasions by well placed bribes, allowed local religious/non-Muslim communities a degree of autonomy to manage their internal affairs. These remnants of Byzantium coalesce into distinct groups based on a combination of geographic closeness and theological schisms which were clearly described. It was extremely interesting to follow the motivations and changing alliances between the European powers and internal groups. Masters dismisses a colonial explanation and opts for a functional approach based on altruism and self interest.
In the 16th century the Roman Catholic Church, executed a rear guard defense against Protestantism in Europe by attempting to restoring ties with the east. Initially the emissaries were Italian and the approach was to establish schools with a goal of shading theological differences towards a Latin interpretation. As France's military power expanded in the 18th and 19th century the RC Church's role was assumed by Catholic from France, and the movement was successful amongst Marionites and Syrian Melkites (among others) because, as Masters suggests, the Orthodox Patriarchs in Istanbul and Antioch were too far removed and the Catholic Church afforded a both a larger degree of local autonomy, offered education to girls as well as boys and allowed participation of women in public religious life. Conversely, for Christians, there were attractions towards Islam which offered men and women the opportunity to divorce. The priests were followed by merchants, both English and French. Masters details how the internal commercial network was heavily dominated by Christians and Jews to begin with, both as customs brokers and as traders, in the latter case often in partnership with Muslim financial backing, however as dhimmis they paid a higher rate of tax (5% vs 3%) on the total value of traded goods. Under the system of capitulations Europeans were given reciprocal trading rights with the Ottomans, many Ottoman Christians and Jews were attracted to work as dragomen (agents/middle men) and Europeans obtained language, customs and negotiating services as well as access to the network. As dragomen this increased status put non-Muslims on a equal basis with their Muslim counterpart, both in terms of taxation and, at least in commercial matters, standing in the court, and gave dragomen the leverage of European financing. However the vast majority of the dhimmi class were poor and had to wait until the 19th century for emancipation.
The turning point of the Ottoman 19th century were the Tanzimat constitutional reforms of 1839, the project of a small group of liberal reformers in Istanbul who were inspired by similar changes happening in Europe and as a remedy to the internal conquest of al Sham by Ali Pasha in the 1830s. Armenians, Jews, Copts and Orthodox Christians embraced the reforms which were resented by many Muslims as they viewed it as privileging others and of little benefit to being reduced to the status of equals, and resentment against the rising Christian fortunes lead to a series of pogroms against Christians between 1850 and 1860. For some an appeal to the idea of Ottomanism and the benevolent protection of the Sublime Porte was sufficient, however amongst the intelligentsia a second alternative emerged - Arab Nationalism. There was little interest from Jews who preferred a lower political profile, and a corresponding Salafiyya sentiment which argued for a modernized state, either Arab or Ottoman, based on Muslim principles where Christians and Jews could live in harmony and equality with their Muslim brothers. The details of how this would work are still under development. ;-)
Masters' examples present a nuanced illustration of the evolving rivalry between ethnic and religious groups, cities such as Aleppo, Damascus and Cairo, the major mercantile power centres of the region, and the spillover that affected communities in Antioch, Nablus, Beirut, Basra, Baghdad and Jerusalem. It's an excellent read that manages to both inform and shift one's understanding of an era.
Recommended!
February 15, 2013
A rare and precious historical source on the Levant's roots of sectarianism
February 14, 2018
Very informative. i liked the part about the religious activity in Aleppo.
Displaying 1 - 3 of 3 reviews