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Economists with Guns: Authoritarian Development and U.S.-Indonesian Relations, 1960-1968
Offering the first comprehensive history of U.S relations with Indonesia during the 1960s, Economists with Guns explores one of the central dynamics of international politics during the Cold the emergence and U.S. embrace of authoritarian regimes pledged to programs of military-led development. Drawing on newly declassified archival material, Simpson examines how Americans and Indonesians imagined the country's development in the 1950s and why they abandoned their democratic hopes in the 1960s in favor of Suharto's military regime. Far from viewing development as a path to democracy, this book highlights the evolving commitment of Americans and Indonesians to authoritarianism in the 1960s on.
377 pages, Paperback
First published March 28, 2008
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September 22, 2022Economists with Guns sets out to complete two main intellectual tasks. First, it uses declassified US diplomatic material to show convincingly that the United States knowingly abetted the Indonesian Army's massacres of the PKI (the Indonesian Communist Party), which may have killed around 500,000 people.
Second, it shows how the intellectual work of modernization theorists -- including social scientists like Lucian Pye and Walt Rostow -- were used to justify the support of the Indonesian Army as a "pro-developmental" force. The one through-line in a frequently incoherent US foreign policy towards Indonesia was to support the army over all other parts of society, which culminated in the mass murder of the PKI and the rise of Suharto's kleptocratic dictatorship.
Perhaps this is nitpicky but I felt a little cheated by the title -- there aren't literally any economists with guns. More seriously, it feels like this book is trying to gesture towards deeper links between the intellectual and policymaking worlds (like, say, with the Berkeley Mafia) that it never quite explores in depth. I would pick up Mandarins of the Future or Modernization as Ideology (probably the second) as an alternative. Vincent Bevins's Jakarta Method, which I believe leans heavily on this work, also covers many of the same events around the PKI massacres and is frankly more readable.
Second, it shows how the intellectual work of modernization theorists -- including social scientists like Lucian Pye and Walt Rostow -- were used to justify the support of the Indonesian Army as a "pro-developmental" force. The one through-line in a frequently incoherent US foreign policy towards Indonesia was to support the army over all other parts of society, which culminated in the mass murder of the PKI and the rise of Suharto's kleptocratic dictatorship.
Perhaps this is nitpicky but I felt a little cheated by the title -- there aren't literally any economists with guns. More seriously, it feels like this book is trying to gesture towards deeper links between the intellectual and policymaking worlds (like, say, with the Berkeley Mafia) that it never quite explores in depth. I would pick up Mandarins of the Future or Modernization as Ideology (probably the second) as an alternative. Vincent Bevins's Jakarta Method, which I believe leans heavily on this work, also covers many of the same events around the PKI massacres and is frankly more readable.
September 23, 2021
Informative and well researched read detailing how the USA and Western-oriented Indonesian technocrats were a major factor in Indonesia's subsequent economic disintegration in the 1960s as they went against mainstream Indonesian views, for example the goals of USA officials, who pushed technical training and the capitalisation of peasant agriculture clashed directly with those of Indonesian development planners who prioritised agricultural self-sufficiency and rural employment over technical modernisation
Moreover USA aid, such as Food for Peace that served powerful domestic constituencies in southern US states actually failed to enhance Indonesia's long-term capacity for producing rice, a problem the program reproduced in other countries
I thought the author did a very good job of tracing how Lyndon Johnson's administration groomed Suharto regime via military and participant training programs to replace Sukarno and led Indonesia to depend entirely on foreign aid/investment and commit to bitter anti-Communism, which eventually led to the resource extraction and commodity export development model pushed by Western creditors under Suharto's rule, the riches of which flowed overwhelmingly to a tiny sliver of Indonesia's elite, ravaging the country's environment that enriches only those same Western creditors while Indonesia's poverty line continues to grow amid corruption, cronyism and nepotism
I particularly enjoyed the history of conflict between Sukarno and the colonial powers that led to Konfrontasi including Sukarno's belief that Indonesia had a legitimate right to shape events in SE Asia and oppose the manner in which Malaysia was created, which he deemed as a constructed colonial project rather than as an outcome of struggle and ultimately still benefited its "former" colonial master at the expense of its citizens
Highly recommended to anyone interested in Indonesia's political and economic history from the 60s and its lasting effects
Moreover USA aid, such as Food for Peace that served powerful domestic constituencies in southern US states actually failed to enhance Indonesia's long-term capacity for producing rice, a problem the program reproduced in other countries
I thought the author did a very good job of tracing how Lyndon Johnson's administration groomed Suharto regime via military and participant training programs to replace Sukarno and led Indonesia to depend entirely on foreign aid/investment and commit to bitter anti-Communism, which eventually led to the resource extraction and commodity export development model pushed by Western creditors under Suharto's rule, the riches of which flowed overwhelmingly to a tiny sliver of Indonesia's elite, ravaging the country's environment that enriches only those same Western creditors while Indonesia's poverty line continues to grow amid corruption, cronyism and nepotism
I particularly enjoyed the history of conflict between Sukarno and the colonial powers that led to Konfrontasi including Sukarno's belief that Indonesia had a legitimate right to shape events in SE Asia and oppose the manner in which Malaysia was created, which he deemed as a constructed colonial project rather than as an outcome of struggle and ultimately still benefited its "former" colonial master at the expense of its citizens
Highly recommended to anyone interested in Indonesia's political and economic history from the 60s and its lasting effects
July 20, 2020
Economists with Guns is a definitive exploration into the economic, political, and discursive developments that drove American policy toward Indonesia in the nation's most turbulent and violent years. Simpson makes several important contributions to the scholarship, expanding on and breaking open a previously limited set of assumptions about what drove America to support the military overthrow of Sukarno and the murder of some 300 000 to 1 000 000 alleged communists in 1965.
Rather than holding to the narrative of the domino theory and geopolitical concerns driving economic and political policy, Simpson argues the opposite case—that it was primarily American concerns about the world economy, Indonesian economic development, and the regional economic integration of Southeast Asia which lay at the heart of their support for military dictatorship in the country, as well as more broadly throughout the so-called third world. Simpson charts a constellation of American financial and political actors, philanthropic organizations, Western international institutions, and social scientists who helped solidify a policy turn toward 'military modernization' in Indonesia in the 1960s, ultimately culminating in mass murder and the formation of Suharto's New Order regime.
Simpson's arguments and evidence are convincing and thorough. This book is a necessary read for anyone interested in the turn toward military authoritarianism in the Western-aligned global south.
Rather than holding to the narrative of the domino theory and geopolitical concerns driving economic and political policy, Simpson argues the opposite case—that it was primarily American concerns about the world economy, Indonesian economic development, and the regional economic integration of Southeast Asia which lay at the heart of their support for military dictatorship in the country, as well as more broadly throughout the so-called third world. Simpson charts a constellation of American financial and political actors, philanthropic organizations, Western international institutions, and social scientists who helped solidify a policy turn toward 'military modernization' in Indonesia in the 1960s, ultimately culminating in mass murder and the formation of Suharto's New Order regime.
Simpson's arguments and evidence are convincing and thorough. This book is a necessary read for anyone interested in the turn toward military authoritarianism in the Western-aligned global south.
May 12, 2019
Book takes a hard look at the effect of the US Cold War Policy of containment and how our best intentions can have an unsettling disruptive effect on foreign governments.
Indonesia's crime was not that they were pro communist it was that they were not anti communist. the US stance was if you are not with us you were against us. Indonesia tried to stay non-aligned after WW II, a sin by US Standards.
Indonesia's crime was not that they were pro communist it was that they were not anti communist. the US stance was if you are not with us you were against us. Indonesia tried to stay non-aligned after WW II, a sin by US Standards.
September 11, 2021
A great book for Indonesians and US citizens alike, although each group will get differing messages out of it. Indonesians can see this as evidence of US tampering of Indonesian politics back in the '65 and how the US aided the rise of Soeharto- a history that is not told much in Indonesia. US citizens can see another evidence of how US meddling has affected the world, which effects can be seen even in US- Indonesian relations today
March 17, 2025
As the Cold War entered 1950's and America is increasingly taking over the failing French in Indochina, Indonesia, after being in peripheral of America's foreign policy, became more important with the rise of Partai Komunis Indonesia (PKI) as the largest non-ruling communist party in the world, which undoubtedly made Americans anxious as the Vietnam War escalated. As Sukarno dominated Indonesian political scene with his theatrical, anti-colonialist and anti-imperialist rhetoric, while conservative, right-wing political party nonexistent, US turned into Indonesian Military, especially the Army (AD), along with US-trained economists as their agents in implementing the Modernization Theory espoused by Walt Rostow and to serve as a counterweight to PKI influences.
However, US position was jeopardized in numerous occasions. First by their support for rebels PRRI and Permesta, which was used by Sukarno to label US as imperialist rather than ally of newly independent forces. Then, there were Western Papua disputes between Indonesia and Netherlands, in which US could not support Netherlands without being called Neocolonialist lackey by Sukarno. The other problem would be Konfrontasi between Indonesia and newly emerging Malaysia, as US was torn between heeding the United Kingdom and their Indonesian allies in the military who did their best to sabotage the whole military campaign without being too obvious.
The 30th September Movement proved to be boon to US, as the PKI launched a botched coup attempt, killing seven officers, and being countered by the Army and other anticommunist forces which unleashed the bloodbath against the communists both real and imagined. While Sukarno refused to condemn the PKI for the whole shebangs, the pro-US as personified by General Suharto's star began to shine. In the end, as Sukarno was ousted by Suharto, the narrative ended with an economic conference pledging Indonesia's readiness for foreign investment.
In the end though, Indonesia's economic development was an illusion built on a rickety structure. Rather than opting for the economic freedom as the US intended, Indonesia's US-trained economists looked to State-led capitalism the likes of Japan and South Korea, which in turn become a vehicle for nationwide corruption and cronyism especially for the military, while numerous human rights violations were done all supposedly in the name of the national stability, an illusion that was easily wiped out in the face of 1998 economic crisis. By the end of the book, Indonesia had been in the crisis of the return of Military to body politics and civil life and I cannot help see the parallel between the past and the future the military is trying to achieve and showed that people, more than often, failed to learn from history.
However, US position was jeopardized in numerous occasions. First by their support for rebels PRRI and Permesta, which was used by Sukarno to label US as imperialist rather than ally of newly independent forces. Then, there were Western Papua disputes between Indonesia and Netherlands, in which US could not support Netherlands without being called Neocolonialist lackey by Sukarno. The other problem would be Konfrontasi between Indonesia and newly emerging Malaysia, as US was torn between heeding the United Kingdom and their Indonesian allies in the military who did their best to sabotage the whole military campaign without being too obvious.
The 30th September Movement proved to be boon to US, as the PKI launched a botched coup attempt, killing seven officers, and being countered by the Army and other anticommunist forces which unleashed the bloodbath against the communists both real and imagined. While Sukarno refused to condemn the PKI for the whole shebangs, the pro-US as personified by General Suharto's star began to shine. In the end, as Sukarno was ousted by Suharto, the narrative ended with an economic conference pledging Indonesia's readiness for foreign investment.
In the end though, Indonesia's economic development was an illusion built on a rickety structure. Rather than opting for the economic freedom as the US intended, Indonesia's US-trained economists looked to State-led capitalism the likes of Japan and South Korea, which in turn become a vehicle for nationwide corruption and cronyism especially for the military, while numerous human rights violations were done all supposedly in the name of the national stability, an illusion that was easily wiped out in the face of 1998 economic crisis. By the end of the book, Indonesia had been in the crisis of the return of Military to body politics and civil life and I cannot help see the parallel between the past and the future the military is trying to achieve and showed that people, more than often, failed to learn from history.
September 19, 2024
Buku ini meringkas dengan baik berbagai bidang ilmu, yaitu sejarah, politik, dan ekonomi, yang melatarbelakangi dinamika kehidupan masyarakat Indonesia selama rezim Sukarno hingga Suharto. Tindak tanduk arah politik yang cenderung dianut Sukarno, hingga Partai Komunis Indonesia (PKI) yang digambarkan mendapatkan dukungan dari presiden pertama Republik Indonesia itu mampu disarikan dengan baik di sini. Sehingga, pembaca mendapatkan gambaran yang cukup jelas terkait sejarah negara yang penting itu.
Dari buku ini pula, saya mendapatkan kesimpulan bahwa Amerika Serikat memainkan peran signifikan terhadap pergolakan pemerintahan di era itu melalui berbagai operasi intelijen maupun operasi interventif berkedok bantuan. AS, diceritakan di situ, begitu tidak menyukai Sukarno karena arah politiknya yang condong ke kiri. Akan tetapi, buku ini gagal menjelaskan mengapa AS begitu tidak suka dengan arah politik kiri itu.
Dari segi penulisan, terdapat banyak penggunaan titik yang terlewatkan, yang membuat pembaca perlu memahami setiap alinea dengan lebih hati-hati. Selain itu, ada beberapa kalimat yang diterjemahkan dengan terlalu literal, bukan kontekstual, yang membuat pembacaannya menjadi kurang pas.
Namun demikian, saya meyakini nilai 4 dari 5 bintang pantas diberikan untuk buku ini. Saya cenderung merekomendasikan buku ini untuk dibaca untuk melengkapi khasanah wawasan sejarah Indonesia yang lebih luas.
Dari buku ini pula, saya mendapatkan kesimpulan bahwa Amerika Serikat memainkan peran signifikan terhadap pergolakan pemerintahan di era itu melalui berbagai operasi intelijen maupun operasi interventif berkedok bantuan. AS, diceritakan di situ, begitu tidak menyukai Sukarno karena arah politiknya yang condong ke kiri. Akan tetapi, buku ini gagal menjelaskan mengapa AS begitu tidak suka dengan arah politik kiri itu.
Dari segi penulisan, terdapat banyak penggunaan titik yang terlewatkan, yang membuat pembaca perlu memahami setiap alinea dengan lebih hati-hati. Selain itu, ada beberapa kalimat yang diterjemahkan dengan terlalu literal, bukan kontekstual, yang membuat pembacaannya menjadi kurang pas.
Namun demikian, saya meyakini nilai 4 dari 5 bintang pantas diberikan untuk buku ini. Saya cenderung merekomendasikan buku ini untuk dibaca untuk melengkapi khasanah wawasan sejarah Indonesia yang lebih luas.
May 31, 2025
The leading historian of US policy towards Indonesia uses mostly US and some UK sources to narrate the 1960-1968 period.
Ultimately, Simpson finds continuity between the Kennedy and Johnson policies in consistent visions of a developmentalist agenda funded by Japan and championed by the military (embodied by Nasution and Sukendro before Suharto), albeit a waning in optimism for Indonesian democracy and a moment of sharper hostility in 63-65.
Simpson additionally usefully sketches out the role of the corporate oil lobby, while also noting that in the later stages, it was precisely failures in Vietnam that prompted renewed energy towards supporting Suharto.
Is this better than the Bevins book? I believe so - while less exciting, it is far more careful about making claims (the idea that the PKI was baited into G30S, for instance) and is much more disciplined in sourcing and historical method.
Would recommend alongside a book that goes deeper into the killings - Melvin or Roosa.
Ultimately, Simpson finds continuity between the Kennedy and Johnson policies in consistent visions of a developmentalist agenda funded by Japan and championed by the military (embodied by Nasution and Sukendro before Suharto), albeit a waning in optimism for Indonesian democracy and a moment of sharper hostility in 63-65.
Simpson additionally usefully sketches out the role of the corporate oil lobby, while also noting that in the later stages, it was precisely failures in Vietnam that prompted renewed energy towards supporting Suharto.
Is this better than the Bevins book? I believe so - while less exciting, it is far more careful about making claims (the idea that the PKI was baited into G30S, for instance) and is much more disciplined in sourcing and historical method.
Would recommend alongside a book that goes deeper into the killings - Melvin or Roosa.
September 14, 2019
Okay so it is two stars because some parts felt very dense and I really wanted to get through it. However, do not get the wrong idea. This is a great and researched book about U.S-Indonesian Relations during the 60s. It is very revealing. The United States attempted to push their own model of modernization onto newly independent Indonesia. Long story short, when it appeared that Indonesia was becoming Socialist, U.S funneled money and training to the military in hopes that the army would oust the president. This actually happened and the army ended up murdering one million suspected political enemies (Communists), all the while the U.S continued to support this bloodshed all in the name on anti-communism and modernization.
November 15, 2016
A great monograph of the New Cold War History wave. I will say that it is very U.S.-centric in its sources and writing. But that doesn't make it a bad book. Just that if you are looking for the Indonesian voice in this story, you are not going to get too much of it from this book. It is about how U.S. foreign policy towards Indonesia responded to political realities in Indonesia. There is some better scholarship out there for looking at the Indonesian side of things, but this book pairs nicely with some other recent scholarship on the political right of Asia during the Cold War, a sorely understudied topic in Cold War history in Asia.
January 12, 2023
Should be titled "diplomats with guns" since the economists only played a more prominent role in the last 20% of the book (when much of the shooting is over).
Overall a nice American diplomatic history based on rigorous research, but I prefer to see development more than geopolitical bargain chips: what are the actual movement on the ground? Beyond the allocation of aid moneys, a few grain and gun shipment, or sending officer to the US, I'm really keen to how the military-led development have (not) worked in Sukarno era. Guess it's my time to return to the archives...
Overall a nice American diplomatic history based on rigorous research, but I prefer to see development more than geopolitical bargain chips: what are the actual movement on the ground? Beyond the allocation of aid moneys, a few grain and gun shipment, or sending officer to the US, I'm really keen to how the military-led development have (not) worked in Sukarno era. Guess it's my time to return to the archives...
September 17, 2025
We could see how massively for US to involve in every step of Indonesia’s geopolitical and societal progression in each order of eras. Also, most official still considered Indonesia of greater importance than Vietnam and Laos. 👀
It’s a great book whenever your curiosity of another country funneled money and gave so much training military for much better long terms of political strategy. 🪦
It’s a great book whenever your curiosity of another country funneled money and gave so much training military for much better long terms of political strategy. 🪦
April 28, 2023
This is the book I was looking for! Excellent, answered a whole lot of questions and has added to my TBR list (and coffees in Canberra list). Also, fantastic cover
January 15, 2025
Dense and also one of the most transformative books I’ve read.
August 10, 2016
152 - 2014
Pertama kali dibaca pada tanggal 11 Maret 2011.
===============================================
289th - 2011
Jas Merah, kata Bung Karno, jangan melupakan sejarah.
Tapi, sejarah yang mana? Apakah sejarah yang didiktekan pemerintah yang berkuasa dan dijejalkan dalam buku-buku pelajaran sekolah? Atau sejarah dalam film "based on true story" yang ditayangkan di TVRI setahun sekali?
Buku ini membuatku emosi, karena Indonesia mengalami nasib yang sama dengan negara-negara lain yang direcoki AS hanya karena tidak sesuai dengan kebijakan luar negeri mereka. Bedanya hanya AS tidak terjun langsung seperti di Vietnam, Afghanistan, atau Irak.
Jadi berandai-andai, seperti apa jalan sejarah apabila Kennedy tidak tewas tertembak? Apa yang akan terjadi bila kebetulan AS tidak keburu sibuk di Vietnam? What if...
emosi jiwa hanyut terbawa angan
membuat rasa tak berdaya saat ini
Pertama kali dibaca pada tanggal 11 Maret 2011.
===============================================
289th - 2011
Jas Merah, kata Bung Karno, jangan melupakan sejarah.
Tapi, sejarah yang mana? Apakah sejarah yang didiktekan pemerintah yang berkuasa dan dijejalkan dalam buku-buku pelajaran sekolah? Atau sejarah dalam film "based on true story" yang ditayangkan di TVRI setahun sekali?
Buku ini membuatku emosi, karena Indonesia mengalami nasib yang sama dengan negara-negara lain yang direcoki AS hanya karena tidak sesuai dengan kebijakan luar negeri mereka. Bedanya hanya AS tidak terjun langsung seperti di Vietnam, Afghanistan, atau Irak.
Jadi berandai-andai, seperti apa jalan sejarah apabila Kennedy tidak tewas tertembak? Apa yang akan terjadi bila kebetulan AS tidak keburu sibuk di Vietnam? What if...
emosi jiwa hanyut terbawa angan
membuat rasa tak berdaya saat ini
May 25, 2014
** Books 122 - 2014 **
Fuhh! akhirnya buku yang termasuk kategori berat untuk saya selesai jugaa dibaca! Inti buku ini adalah Bagaimana invasi/campur tangan Amerika terhadap kebijakan2 yang dibuat oleh Indonesia mulai politik, sosial dan budaya. saya melihat disini Amerika ingin menciptakan Indonesia sebagai negara yang pro terhadap liberalisme/kapitalisme dibandingkan harus jatuh kepada ke tangan komunisme.. Berbagai cara agar Indonesia lebih dekat dengan Pemerintah Amerika ketimbang Pemerintah RRC China ataupun Uni Soviet.. dan Amerika sangat paranoid ketika tahu Presiden RI pertama kita lebih condong ke kiri dibandingkan ke mereka.. saya berikan 3 dari 5 bintang! bisa 4 bintang seharusnya kalo diceritakannya lebih menarik.. lama2 agak membosankan sii menurutku bacanya :)
Fuhh! akhirnya buku yang termasuk kategori berat untuk saya selesai jugaa dibaca! Inti buku ini adalah Bagaimana invasi/campur tangan Amerika terhadap kebijakan2 yang dibuat oleh Indonesia mulai politik, sosial dan budaya. saya melihat disini Amerika ingin menciptakan Indonesia sebagai negara yang pro terhadap liberalisme/kapitalisme dibandingkan harus jatuh kepada ke tangan komunisme.. Berbagai cara agar Indonesia lebih dekat dengan Pemerintah Amerika ketimbang Pemerintah RRC China ataupun Uni Soviet.. dan Amerika sangat paranoid ketika tahu Presiden RI pertama kita lebih condong ke kiri dibandingkan ke mereka.. saya berikan 3 dari 5 bintang! bisa 4 bintang seharusnya kalo diceritakannya lebih menarik.. lama2 agak membosankan sii menurutku bacanya :)
May 14, 2024
The promises of the New Order were certainly not reached for the people of the country but Western development forces could hardly contain their glee at the first sign of PKI executions.
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