Enlightened Absolutism: Reform and Reformers in Later Eighteenth-Century Europe

by H.M. Scott (Editor)

One of the liveliest and most influential historical debates about eighteenth-century Europe has concerned 'Enlightened Absolutism'. This is the idea that, particularly after 1750, the theory and practise of government were strongly influenced by the ideas of the Enlightenment and were therefore sharply distinguished from what had gone before. Rulers such as Joseph II and Catherine the Great, together with their ministers and bureaucrats, embarked on a wide-ranging series of reforms. Administrations and law codes were modernised, religious toleration pioneered and state control over the Church extended, the provision of primary and secondary education dramatically increased and efforts made to stimulate the economy and modernise agriculture.

These initiatives, their success and their inspiration are re-examined in this collection by a team of distinguished historians. Particular attention is given to countries where little that is reliable or up to date is otherwise available in English, such as the ministry of Pombal in Portugal, the reign of Charles III in Spain, and the reform period in Denmark. The three major rulers of Central and Eastern Europe, Frederick the Great, Catherine the Great and Joseph II have always been central to the Enlightened Absolutism debate, and each receives detailed consideration. The wide-ranging importance of Italian reformist ideas and of German cameralism, as well as the French Enlightenment, as sources of reform are made clear. The whole collection is an important and timely reminder that the eighteenth-century was not simply an extended prelude to the French Revolution and , outside France, the 'Ancien Regime' was not in terminal decline by the second half of the eighteenth century but was rather engaged in a remarkable and surprisingly successful attempt to improve the lives of all the people.

Genres: History, Politics, Nonfiction

402 pages, Hardcover

First published January 1, 1990

About the author

Hamish Scott

Reviews

[Jan-Maat]

Enlightened Absolutism is one of those concepts, like the New Monarchy of the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries in Europe, which is periodically revived, declared irrelevant only to be resurrected in a slightly different form. The concept holds out the promise of a explanatory framework that neatly ties up the world of the philosophes and the literary world of the Enlightenment with the business of practical politics in the second half of the eighteenth century, but as always the problem lies in the definition. The essential idea that this was an ages typified by rulers wielding near absolute and unstrained power but who did so in an Enlightened and progressive manner, desiring the enrichment and improvement of their states and citizens. Clearly this was an age of both absolutist governments and the Enlightenment in Europe. The question is how and to what extent did they interact.

This collection of essays bundles together a range of views looking at monarchs and chief ministers of European states as Enlightened Absolutists. Most of these essays stress the links between the influence of local Enlightenments, rather than the French scene, the influence of political economy and local traditions of governments. However the problem seems to me that demonstrating a link between the activities of monarchs, ministers and the then current ideas in political economy is to state the obvious - that people in government are influenced by ideas current in their societies (the opposite scenario really is a very strange one to imagine). In which case Enlightened Absolutism is less a meaningful term and simply a convenient label for a period in time.

Catherine II and Frederick II (and the sadly less well known Dr. Struensee in Denmark) emerge as closest to the idea of rulers engaged with the ideas of the French Enlightenment, but the remaining essays in the volume are more interesting from the point of view of development, with governments then facing much the same issues as developing countries today. The clearest case of this, the administration of Pombal in Portugal, is however the one furthest from the influence of the French Enlightenment and closer to older ideas of Mercantilism. The issue here is one of time scale. From the perspective of a longue durée with governments working within much the same restraints and circumstances over long periods of time older ideas and retained their validity and still spoke to the concerns and outlooks of a later generation. All of which makes this is an interesting set of essays to plunder.


H.M. Scott Introduction: the problem of Enlightened Absolutism Historiography: the concept of Enlightened Absolutism developed separately in Germany and among the International Commission of Historical Sciences (ICHS) which preferred the term Enlightened Despotism. Dominated by a French historian, the stress was laid on the influence of the French philosophes whose influence was difficult to prove: The relationship of thought to action is...a particularly complex problem in the history of ideas in general. But it has to be said that the members of the ICHS solved it by pretending that it did not exist. p11

Stresses importance of local enlightenments, physiocrats & Adam Smith rather than French philosophes.

a ruler, even a hereditary ruler, is only a delegate, a servant of the people whose cares and troubles he must makes his own p19 Grand Duke Leopold of Tuscany
government is best where the sovereign is best, who knows how to lead, with legislation and administration toward the happiness of his subjects p20 Francesco Maria Gianni one of Leopold's advisers

Physiocrats vs mercantilism over issues of trade and war, physiocrats stressing interdependence of states & war as damaging to all parties


Derek Beales Social Forces & Enlightened Policies Odd essay which for most of its length seems to deny much of a connection (I should be surprised to learn that anti-clericalism was an 18th-century concept, yet we can hardly doubt that it was an 18th-century force p52), contrasting with the call to arms in the previous essay to identify precise links between ideas and policies. However Beales does point out that camerialist ideas were being taught in German universities, so for generations of incoming bureaucrats and politicians some Enlightened attitudes towards religious toleration for example were at least acceptable, even common sense.

Interesting point about education. Education from an Enlightenment point of view was intrinsically a 'good thing', but from a camerialist or physiocrat perspective it was also a practical measure allowing for the improvement of agriculture and industry, increasing the number of skilled people to work for the state How does it come about that Joseph II could write in 1763:'Everything to personal merit - if this rule is inviolably observed, what geniuses will not emerge who are now hidden through slackness or noble oppression! p52. Split between optimists (believing that education would lead to social improvement and more Enlightened people) and pessimists (believing that people are prejudiced, inclined to religion and that educating them was dangerous, better to teach obedience to the state)

Resistance to Enlightenment as reflecting the limitations of popular education. The Enlightenment seems actually to have widened the intellectual gap between educated and uneducated, rulers and people p53

M.S. Anderson The Italian Reformers Short essay looking at many states. Interesting pattern: Naples had the most active intellectuals in the Enlightenment tradition but the most ineffectual government which even reversed such tentative reforms as it attempted. Tuscany had wide ranging reforms introduced by Grand Duke Leopold (a Hapsburg) such as free trade in olive oil and grain, suppression of monasteries, simplified church services, all of which were the object of fierce protest as soon as Leopold left to become Holy Roman Emperor in 1790 and then were reversed. Reform of taxation was successful in Piedmont but the context here wasn't the Enlightenment but resource maximisation. Overall there was a problem of knowledge, often there weren't even complete records of land ownership, feudal tenure, manorial jurisdiction and Church courts, tax farming leaving governments weak and with limited powers. Society was also conservative with traditional rights fiercely defended by lawyers. Enlightenment thinkers like Beccaria although in government service were in positions that afforded them the leisure to write but denied them influence over policy or procedure.

Kenneth Maxwell Pombal: the paradox of Enlightenment & Despotism Fascinating, not particularly as a study of 18th century absolutism but in questions of development. Pombal is pleasing as a late starter - achieving high office at the age of 50 and holding it until the death of his sponsor, the King, when he was 80. His power relied on Royal support, gained through networking and marriage. Placed his brothers into prominent positions. Background of minor nobility with tradition of working for the crown.

Portugal was dependent on Britain for security but also disadvantaged vis a vis the UK in terms of trade. Pombal pursued a policy of creating a series of monopoly providers to create a strong Portuguese commercial sector capable of withstanding foreign competition. This created a small wealthy class but worked to the disadvantage of small traders (as well as foreign interests). Numerous examples world wide of similar policies. Salvation from foreign domination - but at a cost.

Education - reform of university of Coimbra to provide cadre of educated potential state officials - the development of human capital, a slow process.

Use of state power to repress opposition to the extent of taking on the Jesuits (part of the background to Candide), hanging and quartering protesters. Order and Progress indeed. However in terms of the theme of the book not much evidence of Enlightenment, more of Mercantilism.

A long 18th century ie framework of limitations from 1660 and independence continuing onwards, Pombal working within those restrictions, not changing them.

Charles C. Noel Charles III of Spain Reform from above, with the king supporting Hidalgos against Grandees. However the Hidalgos saw government as the proper business of people like themselves, reforms characterised by fear of the masses and exclusion of the bourgeoisie. More active government from Madrid alienated creole elites thus the logic of the imperial dilemma was fulfilled: reform supported economic growth, which in turn promoted political maturity, and maturity demanded - and secured independence p141. Underdeveloped economy meant that there were limited funds for reforms like providing education. Reforms dominated by a section of the elite, primarily interested in maintaining power didn't create a wide base of support - changes like workhouses in place of charity were broadly resented. Lack of programme, despite inspiration from camerialist, mercantilist and physiocrat ideas, so efforts were diffuse. Also those active in government were reformers attempting to work within the existing society, no desire to change it or remodel it and would not move away from absolutism or the domination of their own class over government.

H.M. Scott Reform in the Hapsburg Monarchy, 1740-90 Long essay covering Maria Theresa and Joseph II. War as a driver for reform - need for recruits, need for income, desire to replicate Prussian institutions that it was felt had contributed to Prussian victory.

Shift at Imperial level away from Jesuits towards priests influenced by Jansenism. Suppression of the Jesuits as a driver - need to replace their role in education, this to be financed from revenues from their land holdings.

General shift at higher social levels away from Jesuits and Jesuit education means that there was a cadre of people particularly in state service educated in North German universities specialising in cameralism.

Impact of personalities of Maria Theresa and Joseph II. MT's anti-Semitism and opposition to Protestantism contrasted with Joseph II's camerialist attitude that people's beliefs could not be changed but that intolerance was a waste of human capital - enacted limited toleration for Jews (no longer had to wear yellow armbands and yellow ribbon in their hair, and could go out in public on Sunday mornings), Lutherans and Calvinists.

Equally to develop human capital there was a stress on providing elementary education for both girls and boys, also a Jansenist element here as education was designed to be Bible based with the view of promoting a simpler, internal faith rather than one characterised by pilgrimages and festivals.

Desire for reform of serfdom - government in between resistance from land owners and desire for the abolition of serfdom from below. Some limited amelioration of Serfdom in Bohemia and Austria, but not really in Hungary. Serfdom was not to be abolished until 1848.

R.J.W. Evans Maria Theresa & Hungary Short essay. Maria Theresa won popularity with Hungarian magnates by granting/restoring lands to the crown of St.Stephen. Overlapping ideas of identity. Multiple languages used by the nobility, limited impact of Counter-Reformation, difficulty in establishing loyalty to the dynasty due to sense of needing to protect local rights from Vienna but also limited opportunities for careers in other parts of the monarchy (this was mutual, few Hungarians in Imperial territory, few Bohemians or Austrians in Hungary).

R.J.W. Evans Joseph II & Nationality in the Hapsburg Lands Attempt to use German as a neutral language of state interpreted widely as germanisation in the context of greater use of the vernacular in publishing decrees in local languages but also spreading government sponsored information - eg improved agricultural practises: Joseph II, we might say, climbed aboard the tram of Aufklärung, only to stop at the station marked 'Staatsbürgertum'. National communities in his monarchy simultaneously climbed aboard a Josephinist tram, only to alight at the station marked 'Nationhood' (those having farthest to travel being most moulded by the initial impetus), & creating in the process, for the 19th century, an equal & opposite distortion of the Enlightenment p219

Charles Ingrao The Smaller German States existing values and institutions limited the potential for dramatic change, also reforms described as enlightened influenced by older ethical philosophies and political economy rather from the Enlightenment. Cameralism led to a tendency towards micro-management. Active role of the state in economic development because of the absence of private capital - again similarities here with modern developing countries. Issues of scale, smaller states had to sweat their resources harder, but equally costs of rulership and armies were disproportionately burdensome, tariffs hindered the development of trade, mercantilism tended towards beggar-my-neighbour ie if everybody to straining to maximise exports and minimise imports then nobody is going to be able to trade! Influence of the UK on the development of agriculture (animal breeding and crop rotation - though what about Holland?). Importance of 18th C. Christianity in shaping views on the duties of a ruler and obligation towards their subjects.

Thomas Munck The Danish Reformers A particularly interesting essay because it takes in a fairly small state over a lengthy period of time. Discussion of the brief, intense, unfocused, inspired by cameralist and French Enlightenment thinking Struensee period the background to the novel The Royal Physician's Visit Struensee succeeded in alienating the powerful, a free press was free to criticise him, poor harvests and the lack of knowledge about the King's mental illness left him vulnerable: When we remember that outside the court there was a deliberately preserved ignorance of the true mental condition of the King, & that Struensee caused popular consternation & anxiety for instance by prescribing a regime for the crown prince taken directly from Rousseau's Emile, it becomes easier to understand the exhilaration which greeted the palace coup of January 1772 p252. Later reforms succeeded in improving the position of peasants into tenant farmers through balancing the interests of the parties involved (and sacrificing the smallholders and cottagers who remained subject to arbitrary corporal punishment and lost access to communal lands which were now enclosed), the pace of reform was slow, the interests of landowners respected and opposition was faced down effectively. As agricultural productively improved the three major parties (landowners peasant-tenants and crown as tax collector could all benefit which cemented the success of the measures.

Timothy C.W. Blanning Frederick the Great & Enlightened Absolutism A trenchantly argued essay that ends by invoking Kant to prove that Frederick II was an Enlightened Absolutist, Kant as an employee of the Prussian state writing to a German audience was hardly an impartial witness. The argument for Enlightenment rests on religious toleration, a social contract attitude to his own rulership, and idea of equality before the law. However as Blanning points out religious toleration had deep roots in the Prussian tradition. Toleration however was not emancipation, Jews were still restricted under Fritz. Blanning's discussion of Frederick II's social conservatism was interesting - reversing his father's policy and favouring the nobility throughout Royal service. Socially the crown sat at the apex of traditional elites and worked with and through them. I'm not sure how comfortably the extreme militarisation of Prussian life fits with any conception of Enlightenment either. But a well stated essay all the same.

Isabel De Madariaga Catherine the Great Although due to the low base of Catherine's Russia the impact of her attitudes, government and reforms was more limited than in some of the other essays in this volume, she appears of all of the rulers the most open to Enlightenment thought, plagiarising Montesquieu, specifically having Enlightenment authors translated and published in Russian including Voltaire & Rousseau, the relatively relaxed censorship regime and the trend against the use of torture and execution. Here it seems there is a link between the world of the philosophes & government, although Catherine was also influenced by camerialism and English law (via Blackstone's commentary).




Camerialism German traditions of administration designed to promote the prosperity of the individual and indirectly therefore to strengthen the state
Mercantilism the idea of wealth as a fixed pie, the only way to increase one country's wealth was to retain what you had and win more from neighbouring states generally through the promotion of trade and use of tariffs
Physiocracy agriculture as the source of wealth, therefore enhancing agricultural production is the only way to increase national wealth and well being