The Rise and Decline of the Zairian State

by Crawford Young, Thomas Turner, Thomas Edwin Turner

Zaire, apparently strong and stable under President Mobutu in the early 1970s, was bankrupt and discredited by the end of that decade, beset by hyperinflation and mass corruption, the populace forced into abject poverty. Why and how, in a new African state strategically located in Central Africa and rich in mineral resources, did this happen?  How did the Zairian state become a “parasitic predator” upon its own people? In this broadly researched study, Crawford Young and Thomas Edwin Turner examine the political history of Mobutu’s Zaire, looking at critical structures and patterns of societal flux, inequality, and cleavage, in particular the urban-rural nexus, the problematic of class formation, and the fluid patterns of cultural pluralism. The authors begin with a succinct history of the origins of the Zairian state (formerly the Belgian Congo), examining in particular the problems, inherited from its colonial heritage, that led to the first few tumultuous years of independence. They then turn to the critical aspects of transformation of civil society, including the relationships between urban and rural factions, class formation, and the rapidly shifting nature of ethnicity as a sociopolitical factor. They offer a comprehensive overview of the major political trends, tracing the regime through its successive phases of power seizure, consolidation, growing personalization, crisis, and decline. Finally, Young and Turner assess the state’s actual performance in several policy economy, international relations, and its package of “Zairianization” and “radicalization” measures. Young and Turner’s thorough research, informed analysis, and straightforward style will do much to illuminate the political workings of a major African state long considered an enigma by most Western observers.

Genres: History, Nonfiction, Africa

522 pages, Hardcover

First published September 15, 1985

Reviews

[Mike Connell · Rating 4 out of 5]

Both authors had considerable experience in Zaire and did intensive research. Young did dissertation research there in 1962. In 1963, 1965, and 1967, he undertook study missions for the Department of State. In 1969, he headed a survey team of the Overseas Liaison Committee of the American Council on Education. In 1965, he also published a study of decolonization and the early independence period. Turner taught at the university in Kisangani from 1969-1971 while researching a dissertation. Both stayed in Zaire from 1973-1975 at the university in Lubumbashi. Young did additional research in Belgium in 1976, while Turner returned to Zaire in 1978 to do several months of interviews.
They observed a serious decline and crisis in the effectiveness of government in the 1970s under Mobutu. They discuss three phases historically. First, the colonial phase was initially pure exploitation, then later justified as mise en valeur (development), and finally as a welfare state. The European regime was referred to as Bula Matari (he who breaks rocks). Henry Stanley earned this nickname initially for his feat of moving a large caravan of dismantled steamers around the rapids of the lower Zaire River in 1879-1880. Second was La Pagaille (chaos) of the failure of initial independence, which had advocates torn between centralization (Lumumba) and a federal system (Kasavubu and Tshombe). The final phase was Mobutu’s dictatorship from 1965 onward.
In most of the book, the authors spend an inordinate amount of time considering various political scientific theories, quoting different authors. Often, their points are barely intelligible and frequently vaguely worded. The most helpful sections are those where they adopted a more historical narrative to explain a development like Mobutu’s background, which was well done.
A key development they discuss is the rapid rise of urban populations, especially in Kinshasa. That occurred because the cities were where the government devoted most of its resources and where patronage was available. Rural areas were largely ignored. Only Christian missions kept up support in rural areas and notably provided better educational opportunities than state schools. The Catholic Church soon became a main opponent of Mobutu. Mobutu used brutal repression against opponents and also tried to coopt some with bribery and lucrative, patronage jobs. Even access to decent schools and advancing in grades came to depend on paying bribes in kind or in cash to school administrators.
The Western supporters of Zaire felt Mobutu was a better alternative to chaos. Ethnicity became important in the informal economy, but the government administration purposely placed officials from different ethnicities in charge of areas foreign to them. The immediate circle of Mobutu’s family and supporters, however, were amply rewarded. Mobutu was from the lower class but had an ambitious mother whom he later memorialized after her death. His roots in Equator Province associated him with military skill. His new name in the authenticity phase of Zaire was Mobutu Sese Seko Nkuku waza Banga, which meant “all-conquering warrior, who goes from triumph to triumph.”
Mobutu had a role in the murder of Lumumba and had ties to the CIA who backed him. He formed the MPR to eliminate all other parties. No regional parties were allowed. The politico-commercial elite took over in the military and government when the Belgians departed. All cities multiplied at least 10-fold since 1940 (except Kisangani). The activity of the state is preservation of its own power. There is a great lack of medical care except for those with connections.
The start of the crisis occurred with the acute drop of copper prices in April-May 1974 (when it dropped to less than half its peak level). It raised the prospect of bankruptcy for the regime. Monetary expansion led to inflation. A crisis of legitimacy for the government ensued along with a failed intervention into Angola with the CIA and South Africa in 1975.
The MPR was imposed on the people and absorbed existing student and worker associations. Authenticity was proclaimed in 1971 followed by Mobutuism (a personality cult) in 1974. It was not really to confront colonialism but was an instrument for legitimation and consolidation of the existing regime. Notably Mobutu made state visits to China and North Korea in 1973 and 1974.
There was a steady rise in public cynicism. Regional administrations controlled their population by regulating movement. It was similar to the Belgian colonial regime but less competent. At independence, 10,000 Belgian civil servants worked in the Congo. In contrast, the British Indian Civil Service had only 760 British officials in 1939. In 1966, Mobutu reduced the number of provinces from 21 to 8 and created the capital district of Kinshasa. Chief officer rotated frequently and were usually assigned out of their home areas. They were appointed by the president; no regional assemblies existed; provinces were dependent on funds from Kinshasa; and agencies lacked means of transportation, communications, operating funds, and basic supplies. Venality (or corruption) totally permeated the state. Societal resources flowed upward.
Despite this work’s flaws, I found it to be insightful on the origins and nature of the Mobutu regime. It is definitely work reading to better understand the history of this troubled country of central Africa. Its troubles certainly did not end with the overthrow of Mobutu.

[Nick · Rating 5 out of 5]

I've been a fan of Crawford Young since picking up The Postcolonial State in Africa, and after finishing that title I decided to give this one a go.

I went in the wrong order as The Postcolonial State was published in 2012, while this title was released in 1985, but it actually worked better that way as the former provided a nice overview of the subject, while the latter offered a deeper case study.

If you aren't familiar with Crawford Young's work or the Postcolonial period in Africa, it started with the colonial legacy of Europe which left patterns of dysfunctional government across the continent. Later political leaders around the world ushered in decolonization, which was often followed by a decline into patrimonial autocracy and usually state crisis, sometimes failure.

In this work, The Rise and Decline of the Zairian State, Young and Turner go deep and describe the inner workings of an individual state, using Zaire as a case study. Young's graduate research was done in Zaire hence the focus on this region.

Young's writing in the title is lucid, clear, and the research behind the title is second to none. Beyond that the work offers a glimpse into an African world that's been turned on it's head by the outside.