The Origins of the Chinese Nation: Song China and the Forging of an East Asian World Order

by Nicolas Tackett

In this major new study, Nicolas Tackett proposes that the Northern Song Dynasty (960–1127) witnessed both the maturation of an East Asian inter-state system and the emergence of a new worldview and sense of Chinese identity among educated elites. These developments together had sweeping repercussions for the course of Chinese history, while also demonstrating that there has existed in world history a viable alternative to the modern system of nation-states. Utilising a wide array of historical, literary, and archaeological sources, chapters focus on diplomatic sociability, cosmopolitan travel, military strategy, border demarcation, ethnic consciousness, and the cultural geography of Northeast Asia. In this ground breaking new approach to the history of the East Asian inter-state system, Tackett argues for a concrete example of a pre-modern nationalism, explores the development of this nationalism, and treats modern nationalism as just one iteration of a phenomenon with a much longer history.

Genres: History, China, Politics, Nonfiction

342 pages, Hardcover

Published December 22, 2017

Reviews

[WaldenOgre · Rating 4 out of 5]

这本书很有意思。

它在很大程度上沿用了本尼迪克特·安德森在《想象的共同体》中提出的理论框架来对比和阐释北宋时期的士大夫精英们是如何理解“华”和“汉人”这样的概念的。其中，尤其是把以科举为晋升渠道、出身遍布全国各地的士大夫阶层和本尼迪克特·安德森关于殖民地本土精英阶层之理论的对比，令我印象特别深刻。

按照谭凯的观点，正是在北宋期间，中华文明才从“普天之下莫非王土”的传统想象逐渐转变成了一种边界分明的华夏国家的政治认知。但这种理念与现代的民族主义观念仍有重要的不同：它仅存于为数极少的精英阶层之间，对普通民众几无影响力；同时，它也根本不涉及“主权在民”这一源自近代的政治主张。

而值得当代中国人注意的还有一点，那就是不但“华夏”、甚至“汉人”这个概念在一定程度上也是一种“想象的共同体”。事实上，“谓中国人为汉人”这一叫法本身也首先出自“夷人”之口。

现代的民族主义观念具有异常强大的感召力和动员能力，但也正因为如此，它才格外需要经过仔细的溯源和检视。那这样一本书，就可被视作这种尝试中的一环了。

[John · Rating 5 out of 5]

Very interesting argument about the emergence of a belief in a trans-dynastic China as a specific group of people with a specific set of borders during the Northern Song dynasty. This marks a break from the earlier "all under heaven" claim to universalist rule over civilization from empires based in the area we now know as China, transistioning to something that seems related to but distinct from modern nationalism.

This book argues that nationalism, or things like it, are not inherently modern projects based on Westphalian models. Instead, similar phenomena can arise in different times and places given the correct conditions. This argument holds importance for theorists of nationalism and modernity, even outside the East Asia field.

I expect that this book as well as "Critical Han Studies," from which it draws on, will be the inspiration for much scholarly work going forward. Given the current rise of Han ultra-nationalism, deconstructions of these ideas are very welcome even when not explicitly political.

[Erik Champenois · Rating 5 out of 5]

"The Origins of the Chinese Nation" applies theories of modern nationalism (including but not limited to Benedict Anderson's "Imagined Communities") Song dynasty China, showing how an incipient form of nationalism was present at least at the elite level, though not yet at the mass level (and not involving mass propaganda). Clearly showing how Song dynasty nationalism was different from what came before - as well as both similar and different to modern nationalism - Tackett covers matters of borders, ethnicity, and mortuary culture to highlight the nature of Chinese nationalism in Song China.

Just as the Westphalian state system shaped the emergence of modern nationalism, Tackett argues that the multi-state system of Song China shaped the emergence of Song dynasty nationalism - with border demarcation and agreements with the Jin and the Xia being particularly important (as opposed to the southern borders, which remained more fluid due to the absence of the steppe threat). Likewise, the increased cross-border experience of bureaucrats during the Song - with bureaucrats commonly serving as diplomats before taking policy positions - led to "a sort of cosmopolitan sociability that was unusual in premodern times" (p. 45). This led to a deeper awareness of cultural and ethnic differences, in turn reinforcing a more modern sense of nationalism among the Chinese elite. Whereas past distinctions focused more on "civilization" versus "barbarism," there was an emergence here of a distinction between civilized Chinese and civilized Others.

Traditionally, the Chinese emphasized their Empire as a cultural and civilizational one - the Emperor was seen as Emperor for the world at large, and not just for one ethnic group. The Tang dynasty in particular considered itself a universal empire (and was the most cosmopolitan of all the Chinese dynasties). However, the Song started to view itself as a more monoethnic state, with ethnicity becoming increasingly important (though still secondary to culture). Certainly, that was partly due to Song territory (particularly in the Southern Song) being the most limited of any of the Chinese dynasties - but it was also due to the irredentist passion many elites felt for reuniting with their ethnic kin in the north. With the loss of the north, many elites in the Southern Song felt a sense of ethnic kinship Han Chinese of the north - including in territories that had not been part of a Chinese dynasty for a much longer period of time - and often imagining the ethnically Han Chinese across the border as more sympathetic to reunion of territory than was actually the case. On the other hand, this perspective differed from modern nationalism in that it did not hold to an ideal of popular sovereignty, or the idea that the world at large ought to be divided up into nation states.

In the conclusion, Tackett describes the modern People's Republic of China as "a multinational state modeled more closely on the Manchu empire than on the Song or the Ming... Nevertheless, elements of the earlier Song vision of the Chinese nation persist to the present day. First and foremost is the belief in the objective reality of a homogenous Han people. The sense that Chinese civilization is fundamentally Han at its core has fueled the awkward relationship that continues to exist between the Chinese state and its fifty-five non-Han minority nationalities" (p. 284).
--
I'd like to end with the following two quotes on how travel expands one's horizons and worldview:
"If a scholar only stays in one place, he will stagnate there, and become narrow-minded and ignorant. One must travel the four corners of the earth, and scrutinize the patterns of human affairs, the social customs of the north and the south, and the layout of the mountains and rivers, in order to broaden one's knowledge" (p. 254).
"AT the age of nineteen, when I lived at home, the people with whom I associated were limited to those around my hometown; what I got to see was limited to what was within a few hundred li... So I resolved to leave home and seek out the strange phenomena and magnificent sights of the world, in order to become aware of the magnitude of Heaven and Earth" (p. 254).

[Benjamin Bullock · Rating 4 out of 5]

Overall, I think Tackett's use of the Andersonian framework of imagined communities in this study is—given the unique sociopolitical leanings of the Song state—justified. He makes great use of Anderson's framework to demonstrate how Song dynasty literati forged a new conception of the Chinese nation in relation to their new northernly neighbors. Overall, a fantastic book to understand the zeitgeist of elite Song dynasty China, as well as to understanding how our present notion of "China" developed and persisted.

[Chyi · Rating 3 out of 5]

问题意识很有趣，但所用材料太单薄，且各章之间关联度不大，更像一本论文集。

[Littlebasin · Rating 5 out of 5]

很有趣的历史写作。『华夏』和『汉』这些文化符号，并不是一成不变的。『我们』成为『我们』，是因为有了『他们』。他们的存在，让我们有了更明确的自我认识和认同。作者的研究方式和思路也令人印象深刻。

[Shrike58 · Rating 4 out of 5]

My hope in picking up this monograph was that I would learn something about the roots of Chinese national identity, and the author met my expectations quite well. As to why the Song Dynasty saw the rise of an officially promulgated notion of ethnic identity, Tackett notes the conjunction of such developments as the rise of the imperial system of examinations to join the state administration, the self-indoctrination required to pass these tests, the sense of the belonging that came from being part of the national intelligentsia, and how the processes of diplomatic interaction with Liao polity all contributed to the notion that there was Han people that should be unified under one emperor. It might be noted that Tackett is quite careful in what he's arguing, as he's trying to avoid the pitfall of suggesting that there is some sort of unchanging, "essential" China, while pointing out useful parallels to be compared with other exercises in national building as a general endeavor. Recommended; if only because Tackett makes his points quite efficiently and wears his scholarship lightly.