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The Mentality of Apes
Köhler's classic analysis of the intelligence of apes marks a turning point in the psychology of thinking. Through meticulously described experiments, his two-fold aim is to ascertain the degree of relationship between the intellectual capacity of anthropoid apes and of man and to gain insight into the nature of intelligent acts.
356 pages, Paperback
First published January 1, 1921
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September 16, 2017
Kohler (of Gestalt fame) studied captive chimpanzees on Tenerife from 1913 to 1917. This book (1921 edition) is an impressive collection of observations on chimpanzee intelligence (ends-means coordination), which, Kohler concludes, is remarkably humanlike except in one crucial respect: the time-space range is extremely limited relative to human intelligence.*
A few other observations stand out. Kohler notes extensive ape individuality regarding intelligence. In observing chimpanzee adornment (objects hanging about the body “serve the function of adornment in the widest sense”), he comments that this “is based entirely on the extraordinary heightened bodily consciousness of the animal. It is a feeling of stateliness and pride, feelings, indeed, which occur also in human beings when they decorate themselves with sashes or long tassels knocking against their legs…when anything moves with our bodies, we feel richer and more stately.” I sense this is an important observation but I don’t know what he is really saying. He also comments that “a chimpanzee kept in solitude is not a real chimpanzee at all” and that the “many peculiarities of the chimpanzee will only be clearly intelligible when the behavior and counter-behaviour of the individuals and the group are considered as a whole.” His definition of a group (“the group is a vaguely-organized community of chimpanzees used to each other”) was interesting. Given the potency of the group for survival it seems that it would be more tightly knit.
Throughout his study, Kohler refers to chimpanzees as “full of yearning and desire,” though his discussion focuses on the “means” part of the intelligence equation and not the “ends” that makes them far more like “next of kin” to humans. In neglecting the “ends” of behavior, Kohler declines to probe more deeply into the affective life of chimpanzees and, by implication, ourselves.
Kohler notes that yearning and desire is “directed toward its object.” This also applies in reverse to “the objects of fear, where the direction of action turns definitely right about 180 degrees.” What is buried here but left unstated is that behavior functions within an integrated structure: yearning and desire is for what is wanted and fear is about what is unwanted, with behavior linking (or attempting to link in the chimpanzee case) need/anti-need with objects that are wanted or feared. “Intelligence” always involves an affective component (need/anti-need) and its relevant objects.** In the chimpanzee’s case, the intelligence is rudimentary only relative to humans*** What is also implied is that unsatisfied emotion is Schopenhauer’s “pain,” which is the want/don't want motive force that involves a release of energy. When “emotion is satisfied,” that energy component rests.
Kohler makes a few statements that reflect the imperial-colonial mindset of his age. He comments that “jaws and teeth can…be very serviceable, as is indeed the case among African tribes and perhaps other primitive peoples, though to a lesser extent than with the anthropoid apes.” He refers to a chimpanzee “squatting in his usual negro fashion” and to the emotional expression of the chimpanzee who “swings and waves his arms about above his head in a fantastic manner, which may not be unknown among non-European races, as a sign of disappointment and dejection.”
*For objects (ends) that matter, there may not be the space and time constraints that Kohler observed in his various experiments. If a dog has a long-term memory of salient events, and if crows have the memory they are said to have, it’s possible that chimpanzees will have a more expansive range than Kohler believes.
** This is implied with his definition of intelligence as the combining of building materials (parts) into “one whole,” with the latter being the end (obtaining food that is hanging) that governs how the parts are used.
***Like a young child, “the animal must do something in the spatial direction in which the object of his emotion is situated. He must somehow get into touch with this objective, even if not practically, must do something, even if it is only to hurl the moveables in his cage towards it.”
A few other observations stand out. Kohler notes extensive ape individuality regarding intelligence. In observing chimpanzee adornment (objects hanging about the body “serve the function of adornment in the widest sense”), he comments that this “is based entirely on the extraordinary heightened bodily consciousness of the animal. It is a feeling of stateliness and pride, feelings, indeed, which occur also in human beings when they decorate themselves with sashes or long tassels knocking against their legs…when anything moves with our bodies, we feel richer and more stately.” I sense this is an important observation but I don’t know what he is really saying. He also comments that “a chimpanzee kept in solitude is not a real chimpanzee at all” and that the “many peculiarities of the chimpanzee will only be clearly intelligible when the behavior and counter-behaviour of the individuals and the group are considered as a whole.” His definition of a group (“the group is a vaguely-organized community of chimpanzees used to each other”) was interesting. Given the potency of the group for survival it seems that it would be more tightly knit.
Throughout his study, Kohler refers to chimpanzees as “full of yearning and desire,” though his discussion focuses on the “means” part of the intelligence equation and not the “ends” that makes them far more like “next of kin” to humans. In neglecting the “ends” of behavior, Kohler declines to probe more deeply into the affective life of chimpanzees and, by implication, ourselves.
Kohler notes that yearning and desire is “directed toward its object.” This also applies in reverse to “the objects of fear, where the direction of action turns definitely right about 180 degrees.” What is buried here but left unstated is that behavior functions within an integrated structure: yearning and desire is for what is wanted and fear is about what is unwanted, with behavior linking (or attempting to link in the chimpanzee case) need/anti-need with objects that are wanted or feared. “Intelligence” always involves an affective component (need/anti-need) and its relevant objects.** In the chimpanzee’s case, the intelligence is rudimentary only relative to humans*** What is also implied is that unsatisfied emotion is Schopenhauer’s “pain,” which is the want/don't want motive force that involves a release of energy. When “emotion is satisfied,” that energy component rests.
Kohler makes a few statements that reflect the imperial-colonial mindset of his age. He comments that “jaws and teeth can…be very serviceable, as is indeed the case among African tribes and perhaps other primitive peoples, though to a lesser extent than with the anthropoid apes.” He refers to a chimpanzee “squatting in his usual negro fashion” and to the emotional expression of the chimpanzee who “swings and waves his arms about above his head in a fantastic manner, which may not be unknown among non-European races, as a sign of disappointment and dejection.”
*For objects (ends) that matter, there may not be the space and time constraints that Kohler observed in his various experiments. If a dog has a long-term memory of salient events, and if crows have the memory they are said to have, it’s possible that chimpanzees will have a more expansive range than Kohler believes.
** This is implied with his definition of intelligence as the combining of building materials (parts) into “one whole,” with the latter being the end (obtaining food that is hanging) that governs how the parts are used.
***Like a young child, “the animal must do something in the spatial direction in which the object of his emotion is situated. He must somehow get into touch with this objective, even if not practically, must do something, even if it is only to hurl the moveables in his cage towards it.”
October 22, 2024
AN INTERESTING STUDY OF APES BY A FAMED PSYCHOLOGIST
Wolfgang Köhler (1887-1967) was a German psychologist and phenomenologist who contributed to the creation of Gestalt psychology (see his book 'Gestalt Psychology: An Introduction to New Concepts in Modern Psychology').
Kohler states in the Introduction to this 1925 book that he has two interests: "We wished to ascertain the degree of relationship between anthropoid apes and man in a field which seems to us particularly important, and on which we have as yet little information. The second aim is theoretical ... that we may, under the simplest conditions, gain knowledge of the nature of intelligent acts."
He notes, "The chimpanzee has special difficulty in solving such problems; he often draws into a situation the strangest and most distant tools, and adopts the most peculiar methods, rather than remove a simple obstacle which could be displaced with perfect ease."
He later observes, "It is only rarely that one animal HELPS another, and when this happens, we must carefully consider the meaning of such action." He strongly makes the point, "It has been maintained that the chimpanzee NEVER takes over a human method of procedure. That is not correct. Cases occur in which the greatest sceptic would have to admit that the chimpanzee does take over new performances, not only from his own kind, but from man also."
He admits, however, "the crude stupidities of the animals, already referred to several times, might be taken as proofs that the chimpanzee does, after all, perform senseless actions, a sequence of which may, by chance, give rise to apparent solutions."
He concludes, "The chimpanzees manifest intelligent behaviour of the general kind familiar in human beings. Not all intelligent acts are externally similar to human acts, but under well-chosen experimental conditions, the type of intelligent conduct can always be traced."
This book will be of great interest to anyone studying animal intelligence.
Wolfgang Köhler (1887-1967) was a German psychologist and phenomenologist who contributed to the creation of Gestalt psychology (see his book 'Gestalt Psychology: An Introduction to New Concepts in Modern Psychology').
Kohler states in the Introduction to this 1925 book that he has two interests: "We wished to ascertain the degree of relationship between anthropoid apes and man in a field which seems to us particularly important, and on which we have as yet little information. The second aim is theoretical ... that we may, under the simplest conditions, gain knowledge of the nature of intelligent acts."
He notes, "The chimpanzee has special difficulty in solving such problems; he often draws into a situation the strangest and most distant tools, and adopts the most peculiar methods, rather than remove a simple obstacle which could be displaced with perfect ease."
He later observes, "It is only rarely that one animal HELPS another, and when this happens, we must carefully consider the meaning of such action." He strongly makes the point, "It has been maintained that the chimpanzee NEVER takes over a human method of procedure. That is not correct. Cases occur in which the greatest sceptic would have to admit that the chimpanzee does take over new performances, not only from his own kind, but from man also."
He admits, however, "the crude stupidities of the animals, already referred to several times, might be taken as proofs that the chimpanzee does, after all, perform senseless actions, a sequence of which may, by chance, give rise to apparent solutions."
He concludes, "The chimpanzees manifest intelligent behaviour of the general kind familiar in human beings. Not all intelligent acts are externally similar to human acts, but under well-chosen experimental conditions, the type of intelligent conduct can always be traced."
This book will be of great interest to anyone studying animal intelligence.
January 15, 2021
This book is a classic of primate psychology, based on experiments Köhler carried out on captive chimpanzees in Tenerife in the Canary Islands just before and during the First World War. He was among the first investigators to reject the dogmatic insistence of most psychologists that animals were incapable of intelligent behavior and demonstrate experimentally that chimpanzees, at least, were capable of solving problems by considering the situation and adopting "roundabout" methods, including making and using simple "implements". He also rejects the lay anthropomorphism which exaggerates similarity to humans, and tries to determine what the limits of the chimpanzees abilities are and what that can teach about the origins of human intelligence. Of course, since that time much more has been learned, such as the abilities of chimpanzees to learn sign language and the way they behave in the wild, but this was the beginning.
May 4, 2021
Excellent book on research of ape intelligence done in the early twentieth century with the chimpanzee. It was a must read for Jane Goodall.
Displaying 1 - 4 of 4 reviews