Judgments on History and Historians

by Jacob Burckhardt

Renowned for his Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy and Reflections on History , Jacob Burckhardt (1818–1897) has well been described as “the most civilized historian of the nineteenth century.” Judgments on History and Historians consists of records collected by Emil Dürr from Burckhardt’s lecture notes for history courses at the University of Basel from 1865 to 1885. The 149 brief sections span five Antiquity, the Middle Ages, History from 1450 to 1598, the History of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries, and the Age of Revolution.

Genres: History, European History, World History, Philosophy

314 pages, Paperback

First published January 1, 1929

About the author

Carl Jacob Christoph Burckhardt was a historian of art and culture, and an influential figure in the historiography of each field. He is known as one of the major progenitors of cultural history, albeit in a form very different from how cultural history is conceived and studied in academia today. Siegfried Giedion described Burckhardt's achievement in the following terms: "The great discoverer of the age of the Renaissance, he first showed how a period should be treated in its entirety, with regard not only for its painting, sculpture and architecture, but for the social institutions of its daily life as well." Burckhardt's best known work is The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy (1860).

Reviews

[Xander · Rating 3 out of 5]

This book contains a collection of lecture notes by Jacob Burckhardt, 19th century Swiss historian, and contemporary and pen pal of Nietzsche. The notes are from the period 1865-1885 and form the skeleton (or rather, framework) of courses Burckhardt gave to his students. Don't expect a smooth and edited narrative, although the notes are rather coherent and consistent.

Burckhardt's view on history as a science shines through on most pages and on some pages he even explicitly explains his view and method as a scientific historian. According to him, the historian selects bits and pieces from a whole range of domains, for example church history, political history, cultural history, the history of science, etc. and with this practices 'history of civilization'. The latter is the true task of the historian, offering readers a picture of a culture (in its broadest sense) against the background of a broader and earlier world history.

For us moderns, Burckhardt's view on (the practice of) history sounds rather unscientific, which is ironic since he attempted to be a professional or scientific historian above all. The main advantage of his approach is that while historic data come and go, and are surpassed by new discoveries and interpretations, the broader picture he paints is timeless. This means that reading Burckhardt today is as refreshing as back when he published his works - one just has to look through all the outdated facts and interpretations he offers and focus on the bigger picture.

This bigger picture is as follows: according to Burckhardt civilization in its true sense is something which only Europe has attained. He claims civilization has to emerge from mere material developments and include the spiritual development of man. Most cultures come and go, all the while remaining at the material level, while only Western European culture has reached a peak of spiritual greatness.

This conclusion is rooted in the concept of the individual: only in Western Europe did individuality grow up, enabling men to outgrow the sheer despotism of aristocracy, church and, later on, absolutist states. Western culture as such is characterized by its diversity: its multiform and freedom-minded approach to existence. Hence its biggest threat: mechanical power - in the form of barbarian invasions, centralization of state power or the belief in radical equality. Foreign threats, despotism and democracy are thus to be deplored as wolves preying on the free, creative individual.

This romantic view of the West is firmly rooted in Renaissance Italy, which Burckhardt viewed as the epitome of humanity - with its creativity, individuality, etc. This culture ended when political forces emerged (mostly Spain and Habsburg Austria) and transformed Italy in one big, centrally led despotism.

One might be temped to deduce from all this that Burckhardt would be the champion of the (French) Revolution, with its emphasis on the free individual and its radical rejection of the despotic absolutism of the French Crown and Church. Yes and no. For Burckhardt this impulse of Revolution might in and of itself be positive, but in destroying its own foundations it starts a perpetual cycle of oppression and destruction. By calling every person equal it leaves a power vacuum, the people will yearn for leaders and all leaders will inevitably turn despotic (in terms of subjugating the individual) over time. The Revolution thus destroys the individual, and turns the West into an amalgam of big centralized states based on feelings of nationality. Burckhardt lived during these times and it is telling that he (in Part V of the book) foresees a great European war based on the aforementioned historical forces and tendencies. Within fifty years Burckhardt would be right, when in 1914 guns opened fire and would not fall silent for five years, turning huge parts of Europe into desolate wasteland and leaving millions of dead and wounded in its wake.

A final afterthought on Burckhardt's view on history: he views historical data as forms which are expressions of a deeper, underlying culture. Every age has the tendency to self-expression in terms of words, images, buildings, institutions, etc. Studying these offers us access to the historical whole - and even though these forms might be interesting or beautiful in and of themselves, we should really be focussing on the whole, civilization itself. I find this to be a beautiful way to look at history, at once acknowledging the arbitrariness and selectivity of the historical method yet offering us something timeless at the same time.

"[History] is on every occassion the record of what one age finds worthy of note in another. Every historian will have a special selection, a different criterion for what is worth communicating, according to his nationality, subjectivity, training, and period." (p. 179)

It is ironic that a conservative nineteenth century Swiss historian - who loathed democracy, the masses, equality before the law, nationalism and industry - sounds eerily modern, or rather postmodern, in his view on history as a science and a practice.

[James Dempsey · Rating 5 out of 5]

My favourite mode of history - uncomplicated and assertive.

I always return to Burckhardt - best friend to Nietzsche, inspiration to H. Trevor Roper.

[Palmyrah · Rating 4 out of 5]

It’s made up of lecture notes, essentially, so you can hardly call it a good read. The style is at once telegraphic and discursive, thus gnomic in the extreme. The subject-matter is Western history from the beginning of the Middle Ages to the middle of the nineteenth century. Though Burckhardt is known as a cultural historian, much of the material dealt with is political – the usual manoeuvring of princes and factions. There is, however, a great deal about the Reformation and Counter-Reformation. The book is criticism and commentary, not exposition; you’re supposed to be familiar with the historical material before you start reading.

I give stars according to how good a read a book is. If the criteria were different – intellectual brilliance, for instance – this would easily get five. For someone living in our day and age, Burckhardt’s analyses and observations are like a rap on the head from a Zen master – shocking, painful and illuminating. Almost every page brings another extraordinary insight. Much that we take for granted about life and society in our own day is exposed as absurd, fallacious and self-deceiving; many of the beliefs in which good people find comfort are torn to pieces. No surprise: Nietzsche was one of Burckhard’s pupils. It’s easy to see where the great philosopher learned his iconoclasm.

Don’t read it unless you want your idols twilighted.

[Colm Gillis · Rating 3 out of 5]

This is a compliation of lectures given by one of the greatest historians in, well, history. As such, it is obviously disjointed and not easy to follow at times unless you have plenty of background information. Burckhardt's razor sharp insights are in evidence as they always are but undoubtedly much of the information he provides, particularly with regards to events that greatly preceded his time, are inaccurate. The strength of the book is in its aphorisms, its grand sweep of historical event, its encyclopaedic knowledge and condensation of events into a narrative. However, it is is a very poor shadow of "Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy" although the reader will profit from much of the work so long as he retains a sceptical air towards some of the more fanciful claims.

[Jaime · Rating 5 out of 5]

Grat hindisght on the way the state strengthens its power: mass pression, envy, egaltarianism, an invasion and usurpation of every form of social pwoer that does not come from the state, a will to make of the religious ends the political ones, an absorbtion of every social task, based on a false view of human nature: the natural goodness of people.

[Bernard English · Rating 3 out of 5]

They are indeed just fragments of lecture notes published posthumously so not exactly a smooth read. However, because they are just fragments, they cover an enormous number of topics and so you can kind of see where Burckhardt stands on many issues all in a fairly short book.

One thing which stood out is his repeated negative references to Islam. I realize the specter of a Muslim takeover of Europe was not a factor when he was writing, but I guess the ill-will towards the religion was still with Europeans. Anyway, his barbs seem well thought out. Muslims are very proud of their religion and attempts at converting them would lead to nothing. I guess that observation seems to have held up over the last one hundred years or so. However, I really doubt his assertion that Muslims have a "feeling of absolute superiority over all others" and have developed an "innate arrogance and boundless presumption." Based on his seemingly incorrect claim that there is no word for patriotism in Arabic, a Muslim is at home in the entire Islamic world. Doesn't hold water nowadays, I believe. And then follow simply crass assertions about Muslims such as that "tortuous paths are preferred to straight ones" and openness is eschewed in favor of flattery and intrigue. And finally, "egoism is directed less at honors and distinctions that at money and property." No examples are given as these are only concise notes, but its hard to imagine what Burckhardt had in mind.

I trust his judgement far more when he discusses European subject matters such as Charles the V, Wallenstein and especially the French Revolution and Napoleon at the very end of the book.

One sign of his free thinking is his concern for the environment which I don't think was so common at the time he wrote. He writes "it is a moot question how long our planet may still tolerate organic life and how soon its solidification, the exhaustion of carbonic acid and of water will be coupled with the disappearance of tellurian mankind."

If you agree with Burckhardt's judgments then you can probably tolerate the sketchiness of the book.

[noblethumos · Rating 5 out of 5]

Jacob Burckhardt’s Judgments on History and Historians is an essential contribution to historical thought and philosophy, offering profound insights into the nature of history, power, culture, and the human condition. Burckhardt, one of the most influential historians of the 19th century, was renowned for his cultural histories, most notably The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy (1860). In Judgments on History and Historians, Burckhardt’s lectures, originally delivered at the University of Basel between 1868 and 1871, are posthumously compiled and edited, presenting a collection of incisive reflections on the processes, patterns, and moral dilemmas of history. This volume stands as both a critique of modernity and an exploration of the cyclical and tragic nature of human development.


Burckhardt’s overarching concern in Judgments on History and Historians is the interplay between historical forces—religion, culture, politics, and power—and the ways these forces shape the evolution of civilizations. For Burckhardt, history is not a linear march of progress but a cyclical process driven by recurring patterns of ambition, violence, and cultural achievement. His reflections offer a sharp counterpoint to the dominant historical paradigms of his day, particularly the optimistic teleologies of Hegelian historicism and positivist methodologies that sought to uncover universal laws of human progress. Instead, Burckhardt adopts a deeply skeptical stance, emphasizing the unpredictability of history and the moral ambiguities inherent in power.


The book is divided into thematically arranged sections, each engaging with key historical questions: the nature of political power, the role of religion, the dynamics of culture, and the interplay between freedom and authority. Central to Burckhardt’s analysis is his exploration of the phenomenon of power, which he considers a primal and corrupting force in human affairs. He argues that power—whether political, religious, or economic—tends to expand at the expense of individual freedom and cultural vitality. His critique of power is reminiscent of Thucydides and Machiavelli, yet Burckhardt tempers his realism with an acute sensitivity to the cultural and spiritual dimensions of history.


Burckhardt’s reflections on the rise and fall of civilizations are particularly striking. Rejecting deterministic theories, he highlights the contingent and often irrational factors that shape historical outcomes. He pays close attention to the role of individuals—statesmen, tyrants, and cultural innovators—while remaining wary of “great man” theories of history. Instead, Burckhardt emphasizes the importance of cultural forces and the collective spirit of an age, which he sees as the true drivers of historical change. In this respect, Judgments on History and Historians prefigures the cultural-historical approaches of 20th-century historians such as Johan Huizinga and Fernand Braudel.


The lectures also contain Burckhardt’s reflections on modernity, which he views with ambivalence and skepticism. He criticizes the centralizing tendencies of modern states, the decline of traditional cultural values, and the rise of mass politics, which he fears will lead to the erosion of individuality and freedom. Burckhardt’s observations on the dangers of modernity are prophetic, anticipating many of the crises that would define the 20th century, including totalitarianism, militarism, and cultural decline. His warnings about the “terrible simplifiers” of history—figures who exploit ideological certainties to wield unchecked power—remain hauntingly relevant in contemporary debates on populism and authoritarianism.


Harry Zohn’s translation captures the clarity and elegance of Burckhardt’s prose, ensuring that his complex ideas are accessible without sacrificing nuance. Emil Ludwig’s introduction provides useful context for understanding Burckhardt’s intellectual milieu and his influence on subsequent historians and thinkers. Ludwig situates Burckhardt as a bridge between classical historical thought and modern cultural criticism, emphasizing his enduring relevance to the study of history and the humanities.


One of the book’s great strengths lies in its reflective and philosophical tone, which encourages readers to engage critically with history as both a discipline and a lived experience. Burckhardt’s method combines erudition, skepticism, and moral insight, challenging historians to avoid teleological biases and simplistic causal explanations. His approach remains a corrective to the excesses of both positivist and ideological historiography, offering instead a vision of history that is rich, complex, and tragically human.


However, the book is not without its limitations. Burckhardt’s skepticism, while illuminating, occasionally leads to a certain fatalism, as he downplays the possibilities for progress or human agency. His disdain for modernity, though prescient in many respects, risks romanticizing premodern societies and overlooking their own forms of oppression and violence. Additionally, as a series of lectures, the text lacks the systematic coherence of Burckhardt’s more polished works, at times appearing fragmentary and repetitive.


Nevertheless, Judgments on History and Historians remains a vital text for historians, philosophers, and students of the humanities. Burckhardt’s reflections transcend their immediate historical context, offering timeless insights into the nature of power, culture, and the human condition. His emphasis on the moral and cultural dimensions of history serves as a reminder of the historian’s responsibility to engage with the past in ways that are both critical and humane. For readers seeking an alternative to deterministic or ideologically driven approaches to history, Burckhardt’s work provides a powerful model of historical thought.


Judgments on History and Historians is a profound and enduring contribution to historical scholarship. Jacob Burckhardt’s reflections on power, culture, and the tragic dimensions of human history challenge readers to think deeply about the forces that shape civilizations and the moral dilemmas that confront humanity across time. While rooted in the intellectual debates of the 19th century, Burckhardt’s insights continue to resonate, offering valuable lessons for understanding the complexities of history in an age of rapid change and uncertainty.

GPT

[WaldenOgre · Rating 4 out of 5]

“我们很想知道自己正漂流在这大洋中的哪个浪涛上，但我们自己就是那浪涛。”

[Shawn Murphy · Rating 5 out of 5]

This is what the historian, Jacob Burckhardt said this about the period in which Socrates and the enlightened Greeks lived.

"All this demonstrates, first of all, consummate political aptitude. At the same time, the Athenians rise far above all other Hellenes onto the throne of education, art, and superior social graces.
The central location helped greatly to bring this about, but a more basic reason is the happy blend of rural and commercial life and the most favorable set of conditions ever encountered on earth. It was as if Nature had for centuries saved up all its resources to expend them at that time…
It is hard for us to give a fair judgment between Athens and Sparta, since we owe an infinitude to Athens and nothing to Sparta, and because Sparta did not hold on to any venerable primitive piety in the face of rapid Athenian progress, but from the beginning maintained a depraved rule of force over subjugated fellow Hellenes. We do not know, however, whether without such an adversary Athens would not soon have degenerated in other ways, e.g., gone in for conquests of the of the Sicilian campaign and other adventures." Jacob Burckhardt

It is hard for many to imagine that there was a society 2,500 years ago that was more enlightened than any society today.

[Craig Bolton]

JUDGMENTS ON HISTORY AND HISTORIANS by JACOB BURCKHARDT (1999)