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Oxford History of Modern Europe
The Lights that Failed: European International History 1919-1933
The peace treaties represented an almost impossible attempt to solve the problems caused by a murderous world war. In The Lights that European International History 1919-1933 , part of the Oxford History of Modern Europe series, Steiner challenges the common assumption that the Treaty of Versailles led to the opening of a second European war. In a radically original way, this book characterizes the 1920s not as a frustrated prelude to a second global conflict but as a fascinating decade in its own right, when politicians and diplomats strove to re-assemble a viable European order. Steiner examines the efforts that failed but also those which gave hope for future promise, many of which are usually underestimated, if not ignored. She shows that an equilibrium was achieved, attained between a partial American withdrawal from Europe and the self-imposed constraints which the Soviet system imposed on exporting revolution. The stabilization painfully achieved in Europe reached it fragile limits after 1925, even prior to the financial crises that engulfed the continent. The hinge years between the great crash of 1929 and Hitler's achievement of power in 1933 devastatingly altered the balance between nationalism and internationalism. This wide-ranging study helps us grasp the decisive stages in this process.
In a second volume, The Triumph of the Night , Steiner will examine the immediate lead up to the Second World War and its early years.
In a second volume, The Triumph of the Night , Steiner will examine the immediate lead up to the Second World War and its early years.
960 pages, Paperback
First published March 1, 2005
24 people are currently reading
515 people want to read
About the author
Zara S. Steiner
11 books9 followersZara Steiner, FBA (née Shakow) was an American-born British historian and academic. She specialised in foreign relations, international relations, 20th century history of Europe and of the United States. Her husband is the essayist George Steiner
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Displaying 1 - 7 of 7 reviews
July 11, 2015
Historian Zara Steiner presents an enormous amount of information to support her penetrating analysis of European diplomacy in the post-war period. And, in her view, it must be seen as a post-war, not pre-war, period if we are to understand why and how the order established after 1918 broke apart.
Too often, Steiner contends, we look at history starting with the end point (1939 in this case) and view all events leading up to it as an inevitable chain. But the 1920s cannot properly be understood in that manner.
For a non-specialist like myself, the amount of detail in these 850 pages is often staggering. Chapters go on and on for 60 or 70 pages. But that is the beauty of this book, which is the first of two volumes on the inter-war period. Steiner manages to make sense of the enormous complexities of a changing world through her mastery of the available records. She does not leave anything out!
'The Lights That Failed' begins at Versailles and ends with Hitler's assumption of power in January 1933. It is separated into two parts, the first detailing the peace terms and the new European order established by the treaty and then revised multiple times in the ensuing decade. The Treaty at Locarno is a significant turning point, along with the Dawes and Young plans to assist Germany in its reparations payments.
Part two deals with the 'hinge years,' as Steiner calls them: the disintegration of European relations accelerated by the Great Depression and the rise of nationalist, autocratic governments.
Steiner expounds on the work of recent scholars by convincingly concluding that the Versailles treaty did not excessively punish Germany and therefore cannot be blamed for the second war. Germany hardly paid its reparations anyway, for political, not economic reasons.
The most important strands of Steiner's argument are tied to the intractable differences between Britain and France. The former wanted a strong Germany to recover from the war, a necessity for the European economy. But France's priority was its own security; a strong Germany was anathema. The inability to reconcile Britain's position with France's security needs ultimately undermined all efforts to create a sustainable order in Europe -- among other formidable challenges. In Germany itself, the commitment to Weimar democracy was tenuous.
The author's analysis of Italy under Mussolini, the early years of the Soviet Union, post-war finance and economics, and failed global disarmament efforts are truly impressive.
'The Lights That Failed' reflects the tilt of current historiography toward global interpretation. It contains valuable insights that may be applied to an understanding of our multi-lateral world today. It is a story of optimism dashed. Each opportunity to liquidate the First World War -- every peace summit, new treaty or diplomatic initiative -- was initially buttressed by optimism only to result in further recriminations and retrenchment. And all of it before Hitler became chancellor of the most powerful nation on the continent.
Too often, Steiner contends, we look at history starting with the end point (1939 in this case) and view all events leading up to it as an inevitable chain. But the 1920s cannot properly be understood in that manner.
For a non-specialist like myself, the amount of detail in these 850 pages is often staggering. Chapters go on and on for 60 or 70 pages. But that is the beauty of this book, which is the first of two volumes on the inter-war period. Steiner manages to make sense of the enormous complexities of a changing world through her mastery of the available records. She does not leave anything out!
'The Lights That Failed' begins at Versailles and ends with Hitler's assumption of power in January 1933. It is separated into two parts, the first detailing the peace terms and the new European order established by the treaty and then revised multiple times in the ensuing decade. The Treaty at Locarno is a significant turning point, along with the Dawes and Young plans to assist Germany in its reparations payments.
Part two deals with the 'hinge years,' as Steiner calls them: the disintegration of European relations accelerated by the Great Depression and the rise of nationalist, autocratic governments.
Steiner expounds on the work of recent scholars by convincingly concluding that the Versailles treaty did not excessively punish Germany and therefore cannot be blamed for the second war. Germany hardly paid its reparations anyway, for political, not economic reasons.
The most important strands of Steiner's argument are tied to the intractable differences between Britain and France. The former wanted a strong Germany to recover from the war, a necessity for the European economy. But France's priority was its own security; a strong Germany was anathema. The inability to reconcile Britain's position with France's security needs ultimately undermined all efforts to create a sustainable order in Europe -- among other formidable challenges. In Germany itself, the commitment to Weimar democracy was tenuous.
The author's analysis of Italy under Mussolini, the early years of the Soviet Union, post-war finance and economics, and failed global disarmament efforts are truly impressive.
'The Lights That Failed' reflects the tilt of current historiography toward global interpretation. It contains valuable insights that may be applied to an understanding of our multi-lateral world today. It is a story of optimism dashed. Each opportunity to liquidate the First World War -- every peace summit, new treaty or diplomatic initiative -- was initially buttressed by optimism only to result in further recriminations and retrenchment. And all of it before Hitler became chancellor of the most powerful nation on the continent.
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October 20, 2014From page 256:
"The map of western Europe was dramatically changed in 1919; that of eastern Europe was unrecognizable. The peace treaties resulted in the greatest expansion of sovereign states witnessed since the Peace of Westphalia [of 1648]. Instead of the three great empires of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia, there were now eight new or restored countries: Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Austria. In the Balkans there was one new state, Yugoslavia, but all the other countries, Albania, Bulgaria, Greece, and Romania, won or lost territories and emerged with new shapes and populations."
February 3, 2025
The period between the First and Second World Wars, 1919 - 1939, represents a time of missed opportunities on the European continent. On the heels of a destructive and demoralizing five year war, the unpopular Treaty of Versailles marked the end of three empires (German, Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian) and created out of them a number of new countries, offering sovereignty to the many previously-subjugated people. A new international organization, the League of Nations, was created to help resolve future conflicts. The Allies (victors) did not see the League as a full solution to international conflicts, but hoped that by referring conflict situations to an institutional body where many nations were represented, cooler heads would prevail. Zara Steiner’s monumental history of the interwar period was written as two separate volumes, the first of which is The Lights That Failed, covering the period 1919 to 1933.
The book is thoroughly-researched and is a scholarly historical account of the time. Steiner used both primary and secondary sources to develop this eminently-readable narrative. It is an absorbing account that is probably most interesting to those of us very interested in reading history, especially modern history.
Steiner primarily focuses on the diplomatic history of the period, with a lot of attention paid to the attitudes and inclinations of the chief negotiators and heads of state. France, Britain and Germany saw somewhat of a revolving door of leaders during the 1920s and early 1930s. There were, however, some periods of longer terms, such as those of Stresemann in Germany and Briand in France. I was intrigued by the efforts these statesmen made to achieve peaceful progress, however elusive. Benes, Foreign Minister of Czechoslovakia, was another statesman who should be remembered for their efforts. Unfortunately, most of our modern-day memory of the interwar period is dominated by the Nazi regime of the 1930s. I think Steiner’s book does justice to the struggle for peace in the first post-WWI decade.
The book is divided into two sections, the longest of which is Part I: The Reconstruction of Europe, 1918-1929. The other section is Part II: The Hinge Years, 1929-1933.
As is well-known, the Treaty of Versailles was not happily accepted by all parties. The victors dictated the terms, with France, Britain and the United States dominated most of decision-making. Even with the idealist hopes of the US President Woodrow Wilson, who opened the proceedings with an enumeration of his Fourteen Points, the results of the treaty were not initially accepted by Germany. Throughout the following decade, reparations payments, war debts, territorial conflicts, and the treatment of minority populations, were argued over by victors, defeated nations and by the newer nations that were created by the Treaty. Steiner is masterly in explaining the motivations of national leaders, looking at domestic constraints, and explaining the “what” and “why” of successes and failures of multilateral and bilateral negotiations.
Historically, the League of Nations is seen as a failure for not resolving the interwar conflicts, which ultimately led to WWII. Steiner does not disagree with this conclusion, but she shows the reader the significant efforts made by nations through the League. To me, this is the most valuable type of work an historian can do. Rather than dismissing the efforts of the League, she presents the historical record as it appeared at the time. Chapter 7: The Geneva Dream, illustrates some of the important Articles of the League’s Covenant, and how they were interpreted in real-world negotiations.
The Lights That Failed is a long book, about 800 pages, but it is filled with superb historical narration of events in western and eastern Europe, as well as the Far East, where China, Japan and the Soviet Union (not to mention western imperial powers) were rivals for influence and power. Steiner shines light on the rivalries in eastern and central Europe, where newly-created countries tried to establish security and economic arrangements. The detail provided on the interests of nations such as Czechoslovakia and Poland is fascinating, and helped me make sense of the complexity of international agreements and disputes.
For a book so broad in its coverage of nations and regions of Europe, I was impressed with the depth with which Steiner covered international monetary economic issues. As an Economics major in college, it was nostalgic to hear so much about the Gold Standard, and techniques to avoid deflationary pressure on individual currencies. One book that is referenced by Steiner and which I have read a bit of as a downloaded sample, is Barry Eichengreen’s Golden Fetters: The Gold Standard and the Great Depression, 1919-1939. It was originally published in 1992, and Steiner’s The Lights That Failed in 2005. There are books published more recently, that may contain additional insight on Depression-era economics, but Steiner and Eichengreen both provide excellent historical analysis.
As I commented earlier, this book would be most enjoyed by readers who appreciate historical accounts. I would add to that anyone who would like to be more informed about the way nations, earlier in the 20th century, attempted new methods for resolving international problems. Prior to World War I, bilateral negotiations were the predominant way to resolve conflicts, with some multilateral attempts being less common. The League introduced a new institution, and although it was ultimately unsuccessful in avoiding another world war, the victors of that second world war continued to believe that an international institution, the United Nations, could be useful.
The book is thoroughly-researched and is a scholarly historical account of the time. Steiner used both primary and secondary sources to develop this eminently-readable narrative. It is an absorbing account that is probably most interesting to those of us very interested in reading history, especially modern history.
Steiner primarily focuses on the diplomatic history of the period, with a lot of attention paid to the attitudes and inclinations of the chief negotiators and heads of state. France, Britain and Germany saw somewhat of a revolving door of leaders during the 1920s and early 1930s. There were, however, some periods of longer terms, such as those of Stresemann in Germany and Briand in France. I was intrigued by the efforts these statesmen made to achieve peaceful progress, however elusive. Benes, Foreign Minister of Czechoslovakia, was another statesman who should be remembered for their efforts. Unfortunately, most of our modern-day memory of the interwar period is dominated by the Nazi regime of the 1930s. I think Steiner’s book does justice to the struggle for peace in the first post-WWI decade.
The book is divided into two sections, the longest of which is Part I: The Reconstruction of Europe, 1918-1929. The other section is Part II: The Hinge Years, 1929-1933.
As is well-known, the Treaty of Versailles was not happily accepted by all parties. The victors dictated the terms, with France, Britain and the United States dominated most of decision-making. Even with the idealist hopes of the US President Woodrow Wilson, who opened the proceedings with an enumeration of his Fourteen Points, the results of the treaty were not initially accepted by Germany. Throughout the following decade, reparations payments, war debts, territorial conflicts, and the treatment of minority populations, were argued over by victors, defeated nations and by the newer nations that were created by the Treaty. Steiner is masterly in explaining the motivations of national leaders, looking at domestic constraints, and explaining the “what” and “why” of successes and failures of multilateral and bilateral negotiations.
Historically, the League of Nations is seen as a failure for not resolving the interwar conflicts, which ultimately led to WWII. Steiner does not disagree with this conclusion, but she shows the reader the significant efforts made by nations through the League. To me, this is the most valuable type of work an historian can do. Rather than dismissing the efforts of the League, she presents the historical record as it appeared at the time. Chapter 7: The Geneva Dream, illustrates some of the important Articles of the League’s Covenant, and how they were interpreted in real-world negotiations.
The Lights That Failed is a long book, about 800 pages, but it is filled with superb historical narration of events in western and eastern Europe, as well as the Far East, where China, Japan and the Soviet Union (not to mention western imperial powers) were rivals for influence and power. Steiner shines light on the rivalries in eastern and central Europe, where newly-created countries tried to establish security and economic arrangements. The detail provided on the interests of nations such as Czechoslovakia and Poland is fascinating, and helped me make sense of the complexity of international agreements and disputes.
For a book so broad in its coverage of nations and regions of Europe, I was impressed with the depth with which Steiner covered international monetary economic issues. As an Economics major in college, it was nostalgic to hear so much about the Gold Standard, and techniques to avoid deflationary pressure on individual currencies. One book that is referenced by Steiner and which I have read a bit of as a downloaded sample, is Barry Eichengreen’s Golden Fetters: The Gold Standard and the Great Depression, 1919-1939. It was originally published in 1992, and Steiner’s The Lights That Failed in 2005. There are books published more recently, that may contain additional insight on Depression-era economics, but Steiner and Eichengreen both provide excellent historical analysis.
As I commented earlier, this book would be most enjoyed by readers who appreciate historical accounts. I would add to that anyone who would like to be more informed about the way nations, earlier in the 20th century, attempted new methods for resolving international problems. Prior to World War I, bilateral negotiations were the predominant way to resolve conflicts, with some multilateral attempts being less common. The League introduced a new institution, and although it was ultimately unsuccessful in avoiding another world war, the victors of that second world war continued to believe that an international institution, the United Nations, could be useful.
December 2, 2025
The big takeaway from this is that it’s weird the British and Americans were worried so about French becoming hegemonic when they were just looking for security. The British trying to go back to their arbiter role after WWI just seems out of touch. I need to read more about why these seemingly anachronistic views persisted.
October 30, 2023
saved my history essay but ended badly. a teacher of mine who will not be named scared me and i dropped the book breaking the spine. i still relive this event and am deeply scarred by it.
February 18, 2025
Much better book than the second volume - "The Triumph of the Dark".
September 5, 2018
This history book covers Europe, from the end of the First World War till the end of the Great Depression. Here is an admitedly long, detailed, step-by-step look at the countries of the new Europe, and how their changing governments tried to get along, while dealing internally with their individual First World War traumas. Germany wanted to be treated as an equal to the victorious countries. Severely wounded countries like France and Belgium wanted to punish the losers and protect themselves from further attacks, while others like Britain and the USA wanted to nurse Germany back on its feet quickly, so that international commerce could once again reach the heights it knew before the war started. They tried half-heartedly (and more often than not, they failed) to get along; there was even at one point, a proposal from France, to create a Europe united by commerce, something in the image of today’s Europe. But that idea failed, as did most of the many treaties they eventually signed. They created the League of Nations, but did not give it the teeth and support it needed to be of any real use. Then, the Great Depression hit. Most countries turned inwards and Fascism appeared. The research involved in preparing this book is huge. Zara Steiner brings it all together masterfully. The book ends as Mussolini, Hitler and company appear. To find out what happens next, we must read Ms Steiner’s next large opus: «The Triumph of the Dark: European International History 1933-1939». Onward, then!
Displaying 1 - 7 of 7 reviews