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The Great Confusion in Indian Affairs: Native Americans and Whites in the Progressive Era
The United States government thought it could make Indians "vanish." After the Indian Wars ended in the 1880s, the government gave allotments of land to individual Native Americans in order to turn them into farmers and sent their children to boarding schools for indoctrination into the English language, Christianity, and the ways of white people. Federal officials believed that these policies would assimilate Native Americans into white society within a generation or two. But even after decades of governmental efforts to obliterate Indian culture, Native Americans refused to vanish into the mainstream, and tribal identities remained intact. This revisionist history reveals how Native Americans' sense of identity and "peoplehood" helped them resist and eventually defeat the U.S. government's attempts to assimilate them into white society during the Progressive Era (1890s-1920s). Tom Holm discusses how Native Americans, though effectively colonial subjects without political power, nonetheless maintained their group identity through their native languages, religious practices, works of art, and sense of homeland and sacred history. He also describes how Euro-Americans became increasingly fascinated by and supportive of Native American culture, spirituality, and environmental consciousness. In the face of such Native resiliency and non-Native advocacy, the government's assimilation policy became irrelevant and inevitably collapsed. The great confusion in Indian affairs during the Progressive Era, Holm concludes, ultimately paved the way for Native American tribes to be recognized as nations with certain sovereign rights.
- GenresHistoryNonfiction
264 pages, Paperback
First published September 28, 2005
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Displaying 1 - 4 of 4 reviews
March 23, 2020
The Great Confusion had been on my list of Native American related books to read for many months because it was recommended by a friend who is a professor of NA Studies and a former student of Holm’s. I can see why my friend recommended it because it has many of the elements one would like to see in an academic work.
The author reviewed a large number of primary and secondary sources. He consolidated these into a coherent, well organized, and seemingly very thorough review of the so called ‘vanishing policy’ that mainstream American educators, missionaries, and politicians pursued in relation to the NA tribes and their members from the late 19th century until the 1920’s. These proponents believed that the best thing for the NA people would be for them to assimilate completely into White, mainstream, Christian culture. Ie, as part of the inevitable and necessary march towards ‘civilization’ their culture and way of life would cease to exist. Their opponents, called the preservationists, allied themselves with the NA’s who resisted out of a commitment to what Holm called their peoplehood: their inherent and powerful sense of themselves rooted in the land, their spirituality, their sacred ceremonies, and their language.
One modest drawback to TGC was that there were times that it was so comprehensive and textured in its approach that it got to be challenging to assimilate all of the names, etc which were noted. As the chapters were about 20 pages or so long I could manage this by limiting myself to reading one chapter at a sitting.
Holm documented his text carefully and richly with footnotes. And, fortunately, he wrote in a mostly straightforward, declarative prose. Thus, it was readily readable.
The only other flaw in the book was that it did not include photos of the people he wrote about. Neither did the author provide samples of the NA art from the period discussed. He made an admirable attempt to describe some of these works. But this is a case where the proverbial picture is worth a thousand words.
Overall, this was an interesting and informative read. And in slightly less than 200 pages as well! For those who want to read more about John Collier, who spearheaded the efforts in the 1920’s to disrupt the vanishing policy, protect the NA culture, and restore the NA’s to their inherent rights, I would suggest Kenneth R Philp’s John Collier’s Crusade for Indian Reform, 1920-1954.
As for Holm, he is such a skillful researcher and writer that I will look to read some of his other work. I can readily understand why my NA professor friend opined that he is ‘one of the best.’
The author reviewed a large number of primary and secondary sources. He consolidated these into a coherent, well organized, and seemingly very thorough review of the so called ‘vanishing policy’ that mainstream American educators, missionaries, and politicians pursued in relation to the NA tribes and their members from the late 19th century until the 1920’s. These proponents believed that the best thing for the NA people would be for them to assimilate completely into White, mainstream, Christian culture. Ie, as part of the inevitable and necessary march towards ‘civilization’ their culture and way of life would cease to exist. Their opponents, called the preservationists, allied themselves with the NA’s who resisted out of a commitment to what Holm called their peoplehood: their inherent and powerful sense of themselves rooted in the land, their spirituality, their sacred ceremonies, and their language.
One modest drawback to TGC was that there were times that it was so comprehensive and textured in its approach that it got to be challenging to assimilate all of the names, etc which were noted. As the chapters were about 20 pages or so long I could manage this by limiting myself to reading one chapter at a sitting.
Holm documented his text carefully and richly with footnotes. And, fortunately, he wrote in a mostly straightforward, declarative prose. Thus, it was readily readable.
The only other flaw in the book was that it did not include photos of the people he wrote about. Neither did the author provide samples of the NA art from the period discussed. He made an admirable attempt to describe some of these works. But this is a case where the proverbial picture is worth a thousand words.
Overall, this was an interesting and informative read. And in slightly less than 200 pages as well! For those who want to read more about John Collier, who spearheaded the efforts in the 1920’s to disrupt the vanishing policy, protect the NA culture, and restore the NA’s to their inherent rights, I would suggest Kenneth R Philp’s John Collier’s Crusade for Indian Reform, 1920-1954.
As for Holm, he is such a skillful researcher and writer that I will look to read some of his other work. I can readily understand why my NA professor friend opined that he is ‘one of the best.’
August 31, 2022
A voluminous text covering the period of the "Vanishing Native" aka the period of U.S. Assimilation policy in regards to existing sovereign tribes across the continent from the end of the 19th century up to around WWI. This is a necessary addition to any researcher's library--the footnotes alone are a treasure of curated primary sources and secondary, contextual notes and reading throughout. I'll be referring back to this for years as someone working in sovereign policy and indigenous history.
December 2, 2020
This didn't really touch on Indiana at all (my research focus), but it was great as an overview of what Indian affairs looked like in the Progressive Era, and will be helpful, I think it appropriately depicting those issues in my book (which is only slightly present in the book--but very important to get right!). I was especially excited that this was written by a Native American scholar.
December 18, 2016
Rating this text is problematic, because I was only using the first two chapters of the work for a master’s level project. That being said, I’ll go into a little bit of detail on these first two chapters. My rating reflects my analysis of the two chapters, as well as the fact that one can see Holm is a dedicated researcher who is able to draw you in with his writing.
Chapter 1: The Vanishing Policy begins by explaining that Indigenous groups in the Americas were autonomous peoples; “each Native group had a unique language, a defined territory, a distinct and sacred history, and a ceremonial cycle that renewed and explained the group’s relationship with the spirits of land. Peoplehood is the basis of sovereignty, nationalism, culture, and social organization” (p1). These claims can also be found in Holm et. al.’s article on what is called the Peoplehood Matrix, which is a theory used in American Indian Studies (although, I would suggest that it needs some contemporary revisions to include ‘kinship’ as another part of peoplehood and identity). Holm then goes on to explain that colonization displaces American Indian peoples and their societies, forcing them to re-establish their territory. Treaties were often authored, but in many cases were not upheld, largely in part because federal US policy was for assimilation to take place. Assimilation would require American Indians to become “civilized” and if they did not, they would be “doomed to extinction through the ‘natural’ process of human progress” (p3). The chapter then goes on to briefly discuss allotment (taking Native land and dividing it up, thus separating communities/families while giving ‘surplus’ land to white settlers that could afford rock bottom prices), also known as the Dawes Act (p11). Holm also discusses the Supremacy Clause and the Curtis Act (p13), and future assimilation policies like the boarding school era (p17).
Chapter 2: Persistent Peoples analyzes the ways in which assimilation efforts failed. Simply put, the chapter outlines “Native American social and cultural continuity” and the ability to adapt when needed, not entirely assimilate and forsake their peoplehood/identity (p23). One continued connection is the one shared between American Indian people and land. Furthermore, “Numerous other Native American peoples sought to maintain their relationships with the spirit world through adaptation, syncretism, secrecy, and even deception. The vanishing policy had no apparent respect for the notion of freedom of religion as whites expressed it in the First Amendment to the Constitution, and oftentimes the suppression of Native American religious practices took precedence over other policies” (p33). Traditional dances are also a form of persistence (p39). Peyote ceremonies are also discussed (p43). All in all, it is clear that American Indians would not just go quietly into the night and let assimilation take effect.
A well-written text, based on the portions that I engaged with. At some point, I will go back and read the other chapters and update this review, as the rest of the text is definitely worth a read.
Chapter 1: The Vanishing Policy begins by explaining that Indigenous groups in the Americas were autonomous peoples; “each Native group had a unique language, a defined territory, a distinct and sacred history, and a ceremonial cycle that renewed and explained the group’s relationship with the spirits of land. Peoplehood is the basis of sovereignty, nationalism, culture, and social organization” (p1). These claims can also be found in Holm et. al.’s article on what is called the Peoplehood Matrix, which is a theory used in American Indian Studies (although, I would suggest that it needs some contemporary revisions to include ‘kinship’ as another part of peoplehood and identity). Holm then goes on to explain that colonization displaces American Indian peoples and their societies, forcing them to re-establish their territory. Treaties were often authored, but in many cases were not upheld, largely in part because federal US policy was for assimilation to take place. Assimilation would require American Indians to become “civilized” and if they did not, they would be “doomed to extinction through the ‘natural’ process of human progress” (p3). The chapter then goes on to briefly discuss allotment (taking Native land and dividing it up, thus separating communities/families while giving ‘surplus’ land to white settlers that could afford rock bottom prices), also known as the Dawes Act (p11). Holm also discusses the Supremacy Clause and the Curtis Act (p13), and future assimilation policies like the boarding school era (p17).
Chapter 2: Persistent Peoples analyzes the ways in which assimilation efforts failed. Simply put, the chapter outlines “Native American social and cultural continuity” and the ability to adapt when needed, not entirely assimilate and forsake their peoplehood/identity (p23). One continued connection is the one shared between American Indian people and land. Furthermore, “Numerous other Native American peoples sought to maintain their relationships with the spirit world through adaptation, syncretism, secrecy, and even deception. The vanishing policy had no apparent respect for the notion of freedom of religion as whites expressed it in the First Amendment to the Constitution, and oftentimes the suppression of Native American religious practices took precedence over other policies” (p33). Traditional dances are also a form of persistence (p39). Peyote ceremonies are also discussed (p43). All in all, it is clear that American Indians would not just go quietly into the night and let assimilation take effect.
A well-written text, based on the portions that I engaged with. At some point, I will go back and read the other chapters and update this review, as the rest of the text is definitely worth a read.
Displaying 1 - 4 of 4 reviews