024-Principles of Microeconomics-Gregory Mankiw-Economics-1991
Barack
——The cost of something is what we have to give up to get it.
" Principles of Microeconomics " first published in 1998. It is a "Bachelor of Economics introductory textbook".
Gregory Mankiw was born in Ukraine in 1958 and later emigrated to the United States with his family. At 29, he became one of the youngest tenured professors in Harvard history. Representative works: "Economic Principles", "Macroeconomics", etc.
Economics is essentially a science that studies how people make choices under scarce conditions and how these choices affect society. Natural science studies how nature "makes decisions", while economics studies how humans "make decisions." In my opinion, to judge whether research is "scientific", it should be based on its research method rather than the research object.
Why do people like to speak in a loud voice at the party? Why are infant and child safety seats only available in cars and not on airplanes? Why does prohibiting cigarette dealers from advertising on TV help cigarette dealers? After reading "Principles of Microeconomics", I suddenly found that many social phenomena can be explained by the models in economics.
Game theory was the first theory of economics proposed by mathematician John Nash in the 1950s. If you are isolated from the world, and you only have one partner, your life is under threatening and your life-sustaining supplies are insufficient. How would you choose? Cooperation or betrayal?
Many books and movies depicting the survival stories of a small group of people in an isolated system now have shadows of the concept of the prisoner's dilemma, either light or dark. The entire society is essentially an independent system, and the story of "multiple players repeating the game" is staged. But because there are too many participants, it is far more complicated than the "two-player game".
The various production activities we engage in are usually to maximize the benefits. The interest here does not only refer to economic benefits. Perhaps the word "satisfaction" is more appropriate. Jeremy Bentham tried to quantitatively analyze the measure of desire, calling it "utility". But even today, humans cannot measure it accurately.
Humans are sentimental animals, and the decisions we make often appear to economists to be irrational. One of the most obvious facts is probably the interference of sunk costs with human decisions. We are making various decisions every day, big or small. Sometimes, it will fall into such a dilemma. A lot of human, material and financial resources have been invested in the early stage of an event, but the more likely it is to find the success probability of this event is very small. Even from the beginning, it is self-deceiving to think that there is a success possibility.
Rationality tells us that we should let go decisively at this time, but it is often possible to continue to stick to the sunk costs that have been paid. The actual situation is often that the opportunity cost continues to increase, and the opportunity income continues to decrease, thus falling into the mud of greater losses.
Today, should the development of our young students be comprehensive or specialized? This is a problem of specialization. Specialization gives individuals a comparative advantage, which means that in fact, you needn’t do many things yourself. But over-specialization may make us less resistant to risk.
When there are demand and supply, there is a market. When everyone wants to buy or sell, there is inevitable competition among individuals. Under realistic conditions, complete competition is unlikely to exist, and there will always be barriers of one kind or another. In some special industries, incomplete markets under monopoly, oligopoly, and monopolistic competition conditions are gradually formed. The software industry with high fixed costs and low variable costs is characterized by significant economies of scale.
Sometimes our actions often produce some gains or losses that we do not want to happen subjectively to others. For example, if you turn on the computer's external audio in the bedroom, video chat with friends, or play games, it is a negative externality for roommates. It is a positive externality for others to take back the roommate's takeaway when you walk out of the bedroom to get the takeaway for yourself.
Among the many factors that influence us to make correct decisions, information is a key factor that cannot be underestimated. Information is often unequal, and the risk of gambling is often implied in the process of searching for information. Just like when you are bargaining with someone, it is really difficult to predict the reservation price of the other party without screwing up the transaction.
Efficiency and fairness are often difficult to achieve. Public goods are fair and may be inefficient. It may be difficult to pursue an average of everyone or the world is fair. Just like the forest on public land will soon be cut down, the whales on the high seas will be destroyed. Although global environmental problems are very serious most countries are reluctant to make great efforts to give other countries a free ride.
What everyone owns, actually nobody owns. But if everyone is governed by their neighbors and neighbors, it will make the power of collective and cooperation impossible to show, which is precisely one of the secrets of human victory over other species. How to seek the balance of maximizing benefits in competition and cooperation is an eternal proposition.
14/12/03
20/05/04